奧義書

出自求聞百科

奧義書梵語उपनिषद्羅馬化:Upaniṣad直譯近坐,引申為「秘密傳授」)古印度一類哲學文獻的總稱,是廣義的吠陀文獻之一。

雖然奧義書由吠陀發展而來,因而經常被理解為婆羅門教印度教的經典,但奧義書並不都是由婆羅門階層寫的,也不都完全反映婆羅門教的觀點。實際上,某些奧義書敵視婆羅門祭司。[1]準確的說,奧義書是一種哲學論文或對話錄,討論哲學、冥想以及世界的本質。大多數奧義書成了研究神秘主義哲學的著作。關於奧義書的秘傳性質,在它們的行文中常有所反映。歌者奧義書說,關於的知識只能傳授給兒子或入室弟子,而絕不能教給其他人。[2]

隨著19世紀初期的翻譯,《奧義書》開始引起西方的廣泛關注。

簡介

印度現存的奧義書多達兩百多種,但其中與吠陀關係緊密且產生年代較早的並不多。有的奧義書寫成時間晚至16世紀,甚至有宣傳伊斯蘭教思想而掛名奧義書者(如安拉奧義書)。有些研究者認為只有最早的五部奧義書(歌者奧義書廣林奧義書愛達羅氏奧義書海螺氏奧義書鷓鴣氏奧義書)可以稱得上是嚴格的吠陀正典。[3]中世紀的印度大哲學家商羯羅選出一些重要的奧義書作注,稱它們為「主要奧義書」(Mukhya Upanishad)。主要奧義書的名單並不一致,但一般包括以下幾種:

  1. 他氏奧義書(或譯為愛達羅氏奧義書,屬於梨俱吠陀
  2. 歌者奧義書(屬於娑摩吠陀
  3. 由誰奧義書(屬於娑摩吠陀)
  4. 廣林奧義書(或譯大森林奧義書,屬於白夜柔吠陀
  5. 自在奧義書(或譯至尊奧義書,屬於白夜柔吠陀)
  6. 鷓鴣氏奧義書(或譯為泰帝利耶奧義書,屬於黑夜柔吠陀
  7. 石氏奧義書(或譯伽陀奧義書,屬於黑夜柔吠陀)
  8. 白螺氏奧義書(屬於黑夜柔吠陀)
  9. 剃髮奧義書(或譯為禿頂奧義書,屬於阿闥婆吠陀
  10. 蛙氏奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)
  11. 疑問奧義書(或譯為六問奧義書,屬於阿闥婆吠陀)

現代研究者通常認為,與吠陀時代末期的思想密切相關的奧義書有13種,即上述奧義書再加上屬於梨俱吠陀的海螺氏奧義書(又名憍屍多基奧義書)和屬於黑夜柔吠陀的慈氏奧義書(或譯為彌勒奧義書)。德國東方學保羅·多伊森根據語言學將這13種奧義書分為3類:[4]

第一類是用散文體寫成的最古老的奧義書,產生時間在前800年至前500年之間,包括廣林奧義書、歌者奧義書、鷓鴣氏奧義書、海螺氏奧義書、愛達羅氏奧義書和由誰奧義書。

第二類是用詩體寫成的,產生時間在前500年至前1世紀之間,包括由誰奧義書、石氏奧義書、自在奧義書、白騾奧義書和禿頂奧義書。由誰奧義書兼有散文體和詩體,因此第一類與第二類都包括了它。

第三類是用後期散文體寫成的最晚近的奧義書,產生時間在公元前後,包括疑問奧義書、慈氏奧義書和蛙氏奧義書。

其他學者可能有不同的分期方法。如拉納德根據語言學和對書中思想發展的分析將上述13種分類為5組;拉達克利希南的分類與多伊森基本一致,但認為廣林奧義書中也有晚出的部分,而慈氏奧義書和白騾奧義書最晚,因為它們受到了數論瑜伽的影響。一般都認為廣林奧義書和歌者奧義書是現存最古老的奧義書,但二者誰更早的問題,尚無定論。

除了上述13種在印度哲學史研究中有特殊意義的奧義書外,其它一些重要奧義書包括:

  1. 金剛針奧義書(屬於娑摩吠陀)
  2. 離所緣奧義書(屬於白夜柔吠陀)
  3. 摩訶那羅延奧義書(屬於黑夜柔吠陀)
  4. 胎藏奧義書(屬於黑夜柔吠陀)
  5. 室建陀奧義書(屬於黑夜柔吠陀)
  6. 普度鬥爭世奧義書(屬於黑夜柔吠陀)
  7. 自我奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)
  8. 菁華奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)
  9. 糍供奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)
  10. 生氣火祀奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)
  11. 智頂奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)
  12. 舍利奧義書(屬於阿闥婆吠陀)

思想

奧義書在印度宗教與哲學的發展過程中有重大意義。在奧義書產生之前,吠陀時期的印歐人只敬拜上古諸神;梵書則大多是形式主義的祭祀手冊。奧義書最早集中精力討論宇宙的終極真理。奧義書中兩個最重要的概念是「」和「」。奧義書用各種奇妙的比喻(很多在現代人看來是不可理解的)來說明,梵就是一切,也就是最高存在;人類的我(個體靈魂)來自宇宙的我,即梵(宇宙靈魂)。總之,宇宙就是梵,梵就是我;「梵我一如」這個最高真理就是奧義書主要的觀點。在奧義書的思想基礎上產生了吠檀多派,後來直接影響到印度教大改革者商羯羅。

另一個由奧義書系統搭建起來的重要觀念是輪迴業報。輪迴業報的觀點在梨俱吠陀中根本沒有,梵書中偶爾提及人死後可以轉生,只有奧義書完整建立了轉世者的轉世形態取決於他前世的所作所為()的思想。廣林奧義書說,轉世者「因善業而成為善人,因惡業而成為惡人」。[5]當然,從無盡的輪迴中解脫出來的方法也有,那就是認識到奧義書主張的「梵我一如」。

註釋

  1. 印度兩大史詩評論匯編,314頁,溫特尼茨語
  2. 歌者奧義書,3.11
  3. 印度佛教史,商務印書館,ISBN 7-100-02682-2
  4. Sharma,B. N. Krishnamurti,Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,ISBN 9788120815759,17~19頁
  5. 廣林奧義書,3.2

參考文獻

  • 《五十奧義書》,徐梵澄譯,中國社會科學出版社,ISBN 978-7-5004-1459-9
  • 《奧義書》,黃寶生譯,商務印書館,ISBN 978-7-100-06502-3
  • 《印度哲學史》,黃心川著,商務印書館,ISBN 7-100-00804-2
  • Brooks, Douglas Renfrew, The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Shakta Tantrism, The University of Chicago Press, 1990 
  • Brown, Rev. George William, Missionary review of the world, Volume 45, Funk & Wagnalls, 1922 
  • Deussen, Paul; Bedekar, V.M. (tr.); Palsule (tr.), G.B. Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. 1997. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7. 
  • Deussen, P., The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Cosimo, 2010, ISBN 978-1-61640-239-6 
  • Chari, P. N. Srinivasa, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , 編, History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, 1956 
  • Chousalkar, Ashok, Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, Mittal Publications, 1986 
  • Collins, Randall, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change, Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-674-00187-7 
  • Cornille, Catherine, The Guru in Indian Catholicism: Ambiguity Or Opportunity of Inculturation, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1992, ISBN 978-0-8028-0566-9 
  • Deussen, Paul, The philosophy of the Upanishads, Alfred Shenington Geden, T. & T. Clark, 1908, ISBN 0-7661-5470-X 
  • Easwaran, Eknath, The Upanishads, Nilgiri Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-58638-021-2 
  • Eliot, T. S., Collected Poems, 1909-1962, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1963, ISBN 0-15-118978-1 
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, Advaita, [10 August 2010] 
  • Farquhar, John Nicol. An outline of the religious literature of India. H. Milford, Oxford university press. 1920. ISBN 81-208-2086-X. 
  • Fields, Gregory P, Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Āyurveda, and Tantra, SUNY Press, 2001, ISBN 0-7914-4916-5 
  • Flood, Gavin D., An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0521438780 
  • Glucklich, Ariel, The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-19-531405-0 
  • Heehs, Peter, Indian religions: a historical reader of spiritual expression and experience, NYU Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-8147-3650-0 
  • Holdrege, Barbara A., Veda and Torah, Albany: SUNY Press, 1995, ISBN 0-7914-1639-9 
  • Jayatilleke, K.N., Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) 1st, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1963 [2016-11-17] 
  • Joshi, Kireet, The Veda and Indian culture: an introductory essay, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1994, ISBN 978-81-208-0889-8 
  • Keith, Arthur Berriedale. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 2007. ISBN 978-81-208-0644-3. 
  • King, Richard, Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-87840-756-1 
  • King, Richard, Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, Gauḍapāda, State University of New York Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-7914-2513-8 
  • Klostermaier, Klaus K., A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, 2007, ISBN 0-585-04507-0 
  • Lanman, Charles R, The Outlook, Volume 56, Outlook Co., 1897 
  • Lal, Mohan, Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: sasay to zorgot, Sahitya Akademi, 1992, ISBN 978-81-260-1221-3 
  • Müller, Friedrich Max, The Upanishads Sacred books of the East The Upanishads, Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford University Press, 1900 
  • Mahadevan, T. M. P, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , 編, History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1956 
  • Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, [10 August 2010], ISBN 0-8426-0286-0 
  • Muller, F. Max, The science of language founded on lectures delivered at the royal institution in 1861 AND 1863, 1899, ISBN 0-404-11441-5 
  • Nakamura, Hajime, A history of early Vedānta philosophy, Volume 2, Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2004 
  • Olivelle, Patrick. The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0195070453. 
  • Olivelle, Patrick, Upaniṣads, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0192835765 
  • Panikkar, Raimundo, The Vedic experience: Mantramañjarī : an anthology of the Vedas for modern man and contemporary celebration, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001, ISBN 978-81-208-1280-2 
  • Parmeshwaranand, Swami, Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upanisads, Sarup & Sons, 2000, ISBN 978-81-7625-148-8 
  • Phillips, Stephen H., Classical Indian metaphysics: refutations of realism and the emergence of "new logic", Open Court Publishing, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1489-9 
  • Samuel, Geoffrey, The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, 2010 
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , 編, History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1956 
  • Raghavendrachar, Vidvan H. N, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , 編, History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, 1956 
  • Ranade, R. D., A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1926 
  • Rinehart, Robin, Robin Rinehart , 編, Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice, ABC-CLIO, 2004, ISBN 978-1-57607-905-8 
  • Schopenhauer, Arthur; Payne, E. F.J, E. F. J. Payne , 編, Parerga and paralipomena: short philosophical essays, Volume 2 of Parerga and Paralipomena, E. F. J. Payne, Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-19-924221-4 
  • Schrödinger, Erwin. What is life?. Cambridge University Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-521-42708-1. 
  • Schrader, Friedrich Otto; Adyar Library, A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the Adyar Library, Oriental Pub. Co, 1908 
  • Sen, Sris Chandra, Vedic literature and Upanishads, The Mystic Philosophy of the Upanishads, General Printers & Publishers, 1937 
  • Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti. A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 2000. ISBN 978-81-208-1575-9. 
  • Sharma, Shubhra, Life in the Upanishads, Abhinav Publications, 1985, ISBN 978-81-7017-202-4 
  • Singh, N.K, Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, 2002, ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7 
  • Slater, Thomas Ebenezer, Studies in the Upanishads ATLA monograph preservation program, Christian Literature Society for India, 1897 
  • Smith, Huston. The Illustrated World’s Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions. New York: Labyrinth Publishing. 1995. ISBN 0-06-067453-9. 
  • Tripathy, Preeti, Indian religions: tradition, history and culture, Axis Publications, 2010, ISBN 978-93-80376-17-2 
  • Urwick, Edward Johns, The message of Plato: a re-interpretation of the "Republic", Methuen & co. ltd, 1920, ISBN 9781136231162 
  • Varghese, Alexander P, India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World, Volume 1, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 2008, ISBN 978-81-269-0903-2 
  • Versluis, Arthur, American transcendentalism and Asian religions, Oxford University Press US, 1993, ISBN 978-0-19-507658-5 
  • Wadia, A.R., Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (編), History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, vol. II, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1956 
  • Raju, P. T., The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1992 

延伸閱讀

  • Edgerton, Franklin. The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1965. 
  • Embree, Ainslie T. The Hindu Tradition. New York: Random House. 1966. ISBN 0-394-71702-3. 
  • Hume, Robert Ernest. The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Oxford University Press. 
  • Johnston, Charles. From the Upanishads. Kshetra Books (Reprinted in 2014). 1898. ISBN 9781495946530. 
  • Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part I, New York: Dover Publications (Reprinted in 1962), ISBN 0-486-20992-X
  • Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part II, New York: Dover Publications (Reprinted in 1962), ISBN 0-486-20993-8
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli. The Principal Upanishads. New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers India (Reprinted in 1994). 1953. ISBN 81-7223-124-5. 

外部連結