奥义书

奥义书（梵语：उपनिषद्，罗马化：Upaniṣad，直译：近坐，引申为“秘密传授”）古印度一类哲学文献的总称，是广义的吠陀文献之一。

虽然奥义书由吠陀发展而来，因而经常被理解为婆罗门教与印度教的经典，但奥义书并不都是由婆罗门阶层写的，也不都完全反映婆罗门教的观点。实际上，某些奥义书敌视婆罗门祭司。^[1]准确的说，奥义书是一种哲学论文或对话录，讨论哲学、冥想以及世界的本质。大多数奥义书成了研究神秘主义哲学的著作。关于奥义书的秘传性质，在它们的行文中常有所反映。歌者奥义书说，关于梵的知识只能传授给儿子或入室弟子，而绝不能教给其他人。^[2]

随着19世纪初期的翻译，《奥义书》开始引起西方的广泛关注。

简介

印度现存的奥义书多达两百多种，但其中与吠陀关系紧密且产生年代较早的并不多。有的奥义书写成时间晚至16世纪，甚至有宣传伊斯兰教思想而挂名奥义书者（如安拉奥义书）。有些研究者认为只有最早的五部奥义书（歌者奥义书、广林奥义书、爱达罗氏奥义书、海螺氏奥义书、鹧鸪氏奥义书）可以称得上是严格的吠陀正典。^[3]中世纪的印度大哲学家商羯罗选出一些重要的奥义书作注，称它们为“主要奥义书”（Mukhya Upanishad）。主要奥义书的名单并不一致，但一般包括以下几种：

他氏奥义书（或译为爱达罗氏奥义书，属于梨俱吠陀）
歌者奥义书（属于娑摩吠陀）
由谁奥义书（属于娑摩吠陀）
广林奥义书（或译大森林奥义书，属于白夜柔吠陀）
自在奥义书（或译至尊奥义书，属于白夜柔吠陀）
鹧鸪氏奥义书（或译为泰帝利耶奥义书，属于黑夜柔吠陀）
石氏奥义书（或译伽陀奥义书，属于黑夜柔吠陀）
白螺氏奥义书（属于黑夜柔吠陀）
剃发奥义书（或译为秃顶奥义书，属于阿闼婆吠陀）
蛙氏奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）
疑问奥义书（或译为六问奥义书，属于阿闼婆吠陀）

现代研究者通常认为，与吠陀时代末期的思想密切相关的奥义书有13种，即上述奥义书再加上属于梨俱吠陀的海螺氏奥义书（又名㤭尸多基奥义书）和属于黑夜柔吠陀的慈氏奥义书（或译为弥勒奥义书）。德国东方学家保罗·多伊森根据语言学将这13种奥义书分为3类：^[4]

第一类是用散文体写成的最古老的奥义书，产生时间在前800年至前500年之间，包括广林奥义书、歌者奥义书、鹧鸪氏奥义书、海螺氏奥义书、爱达罗氏奥义书和由谁奥义书。

第二类是用诗体写成的，产生时间在前500年至前1世纪之间，包括由谁奥义书、石氏奥义书、自在奥义书、白骡奥义书和秃顶奥义书。由谁奥义书兼有散文体和诗体，因此第一类与第二类都包括了它。

第三类是用后期散文体写成的最晚近的奥义书，产生时间在公元前后，包括疑问奥义书、慈氏奥义书和蛙氏奥义书。

其他学者可能有不同的分期方法。如拉纳德根据语言学和对书中思想发展的分析将上述13种分类为5组；拉达克利希南的分类与多伊森基本一致，但认为广林奥义书中也有晚出的部分，而慈氏奥义书和白骡奥义书最晚，因为它们受到了数论和瑜伽的影响。一般都认为广林奥义书和歌者奥义书是现存最古老的奥义书，但二者谁更早的问题，尚无定论。

除了上述13种在印度哲学史研究中有特殊意义的奥义书外，其它一些重要奥义书包括：

金刚针奥义书（属于娑摩吠陀）
离所缘奥义书（属于白夜柔吠陀）
摩诃那罗延奥义书（属于黑夜柔吠陀）
胎藏奥义书（属于黑夜柔吠陀）
室建陀奥义书（属于黑夜柔吠陀）
普度斗争世奥义书（属于黑夜柔吠陀）
自我奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）
菁华奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）
糍供奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）
生气火祀奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）
智顶奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）
舍利奥义书（属于阿闼婆吠陀）

思想

奥义书在印度宗教与哲学的发展过程中有重大意义。在奥义书产生之前，吠陀时期的印欧人只敬拜上古诸神；梵书则大多是形式主义的祭祀手册。奥义书最早集中精力讨论宇宙的终极真理。奥义书中两个最重要的概念是“我”和“梵”。奥义书用各种奇妙的比喻（很多在现代人看来是不可理解的）来说明，梵就是一切，也就是最高存在；人类的我（个体灵魂）来自宇宙的我，即梵（宇宙灵魂）。总之，宇宙就是梵，梵就是我；“梵我一如”这个最高真理就是奥义书主要的观点。在奥义书的思想基础上产生了吠檀多派，后来直接影响到印度教大改革者商羯罗。

另一个由奥义书系统搭建起来的重要观念是轮回业报。轮回业报的观点在梨俱吠陀中根本没有，梵书中偶尔提及人死后可以转生，只有奥义书完整建立了转世者的转世形态取决于他前世的所作所为（业）的思想。广林奥义书说，转世者“因善业而成为善人，因恶业而成为恶人”。^[5]当然，从无尽的轮回中解脱出来的方法也有，那就是认识到奥义书主张的“梵我一如”。

注释

↑ 印度两大史诗评论汇编，314页，温特尼茨语
↑ 歌者奥义书，3.11
↑ 印度佛教史，商务印书馆，ISBN 7-100-02682-2
↑ Sharma，B. N. Krishnamurti，Motilal Banarsidass Publishers，ISBN 9788120815759，17~19页
↑ 广林奥义书，3.2

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延伸阅读

Edgerton, Franklin. The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1965.
Embree, Ainslie T. The Hindu Tradition. New York: Random House. 1966. ISBN 0-394-71702-3.
Hume, Robert Ernest. The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Oxford University Press.
Johnston, Charles. From the Upanishads. Kshetra Books (Reprinted in 2014). 1898. ISBN 9781495946530.
Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part I, New York: Dover Publications (Reprinted in 1962), ISBN 0-486-20992-X
Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part II, New York: Dover Publications (Reprinted in 1962), ISBN 0-486-20993-8
Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli. The Principal Upanishads. New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers India (Reprinted in 1994). 1953. ISBN 81-7223-124-5.

外部链接

Complete set of 108 Upanishads, Manuscripts with the commentary of Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library
Upanishads , Sanskrit documents in various formats
The Upaniṣads article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Theory of 'Soul' in the Upanishads , T. W. Rhys Davids (1899)
Spinozistic Substance and Upanishadic Self: A Comparative Study , M. S. Modak (1931)
W. B. Yeats and the Upanishads , A. Davenport (1952)
The Concept of Self in the Upanishads: An Alternative Interpretation , D. C. Mathur (1972)

[1] 印度两大史诗评论汇编，314页，温特尼茨语

[2] 歌者奥义书，3.11

[3] 印度佛教史，商务印书馆，ISBN 7-100-02682-2

[4] Sharma，B. N. Krishnamurti，Motilal Banarsidass Publishers，ISBN 9788120815759，17~19页

[5] 广林奥义书，3.2

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