古英语

求闻百科，共笔求闻
古英语
Ænglisc、Anglisc、Englisc
《贝奥武夫》首页，图中文字为“ofer hron rade”，意为“鲸路（海）之上”。此为古英语表达形式之一，称比喻复合辞。
区域今英格兰（除西南端和西北端），苏格兰南部和东部、威尔士东部边缘。
年代13世纪前发展为中古英语
语系
方言
文字卢恩字母、后拉丁字母（古英语字母）。
语言代码
ISO 639-2ang
ISO 639-3ang
Glottologolde1238[1]
本条目包含国际音标符号。部分操作系统及浏览器需要特殊字母与符号支持才能正确显示，否则可能显示为乱码、问号、空格等其它符号。

古英语（古英语：Ænglisc，英语：Old English）或盎格鲁-撒克逊语（英语：Anglo-Saxon）是指从449年到1066年间在对应于今天英格兰和苏格兰东南部的人说的英语。古英语属于西日耳曼语，和古弗里西语及古撒克逊语有密切关系。古英语和近代英语无论在读音、拼写、词汇和文法上都很不一样。古英语的文法和德语及冰岛语比较相近，形态变化很复杂，由于其起源有一定是来自于北欧的日耳曼部落，所以严格意义上并不属于拉丁语族。

文字字母

字母 IPA 转述
a /ɑ/, /ɑː/
ā /ɑː/
æ /æ/, /æː/
ǣ /æː/
b /b/
[v] ( /f/ 的一个异音)
c /k/
/tʃ/
cg /ddʒ/ (其发音为 /jj/ 的初期形式)
/ɡɡ/ (偶尔)
d /d/
ð /θ/, 包括其异音 [ð]
e /e/, /eː/
ę
ē /eː/
ea /æɑ/, /æːɑ/
ēa /æːɑ/
eo /eo/, /eːo/
ēo /eːo/
f /f/，包括其异音 /v/ (同见 b).
g /ɡ/，包括其异音 /ɣ/；或 /j/，包括其异音/dʒ/，后来变为 ⟨n⟩
h /h/，包括其异音/ç/, /x/
i /i/, /iː/
ī /iː/
ie /iy/, /iːy/
/e/, /eː/
īe /iːy/
io /iu/, /iːu/
k /k/
l /l/
m /m/
n /n/，包括其异音 /ŋ/ (以前为 /k/, /g/).
o /o/, /oː/
ō /oː/
oe /ø/, /øː/ （部分地区方言含有其音）.
ōe /øː/
p /p/
qu /kw/
r /r/
s /s/包括其异音 /z/.
sc /ʃ/，偶尔也/sk/.
t /t/
th /θ/ ，最早写为 (同见 þ).
þ /θ/，包括其异音/ð/
u /u/，/uː/ 有时也用 /w/表示 (可见于下方的ƿ).
uu 有时使用 /w/ (可见于下方的ƿ).
ū 现代版本， 用 /uː/ 以区别于 /u/
w /w/
ƿ /w/
x /ks/ （或[xs ~ çs] 存在不确定）
y /y/ 或 /yː/
ȳ /yː/
z /ts/

该个语言字母共有49个。

另外，双辅音在此阶段属于萌发期，双辅音 ⟨ðð⟩或⟨þþ⟩、 ⟨ff⟩ 以及 ⟨ss⟩ 在古英语中不能被发音。

代表时期

古英语可以分为：

史前古英语（450-650年），在这段时期，因为缺乏相关文献，古英语只能构拟出来，是当时盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人在英格兰地区的语言。

早期古英语（650-900年），在这段时期，开始出现最古老的英语文献。

后期古英语（900-1066年），古英语的最后阶段，随着诺曼征服，过渡至中古英语。

音系

主条目：古英语音系

古英语的音位表重构如下：

  双唇音 唇齿音 齿音 齿龈音 龈后音 硬腭音 软腭音 声门音
鼻音 m     n     (ŋ)  
塞音 p  b     t  d     k  ɡ  
塞擦音         tʃ  (dʒ)      
擦音   f  (v) θ  (ð) s  (z) ʃ (ç) (x)  (ɣ) h
近音       r   j w  
边音       l        

括号中的是同位异音:

  • [dʒ] 是 /j/ 的同位异音，出现于 /n/ 之后与长辅音中
  • [ŋ] 是 /n/ 的同位异音，出现在 /k/ 和 /ɡ/ 之前
  • [v, ð, z] 分别是 /f, θ, s/ 的同位异音，出现在元音或浊音之间
  • [ç, x] 是 /h/ 的同位异音，分别出现于在前和后元音之后的音节韵尾
  • [ɣ] 是 /ɡ/ 的同位异音，出现于元音之后和早期的词首辅音丛中
单元音 短 长
前 后 前 后
闭 i  y u iː  yː uː
中 e  (ø) o eː  (øː) oː
开 æ ɑ æː ɑː

前中圆唇元音 /ø(ː)/ 出现在某些方言中，但在信料最好的后期西撒克逊方言中未出现。

双元音 短(单音重) 长(双音重)
前音素闭 iy[2] iːy
二音素中 eo eːo
二音素开 æɑ æːɑ

文法

古英语的名词有数和格的分别。数分为单数、复数；格分为主格、所有格、第三格、受格。因此一个名词的变化数目，将数与格的变化相乘之后，共有8种变化形式。此外，名词还分三个性别：阳性、中性和阴性。这些性的区分并不是以自然性别来判断的。例如妇女（wifmann）就是阳性的。

形容词的形态变化分为强、弱两种，它的数和格也共有8种变化。

动词只有现在式和过去式两种时态变化。

文学

古英语重要的文学作品包括《贝奥武夫》（Beowulf）、《盎格鲁撒克逊编年史》（Anglo-Saxon Chronicle）等。

古英语文选

下文节选自《贝奥武夫》，约于公元900年

行 原始 直译
[1] Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum, What! We [of] Gar-Danes (lit. spear-danes) in yore-days,
[2] þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon, [of] people-kings, trim (glory) afrained (have learned of by asking),
[3] hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. how those athelings (princes) arm-strong feats framed (made/performed).
[4] Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, Oft Scyld Scefing, [from] scathers (enemies) [in] threats (armed bands),
[5] monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, [from] many magths (clans, groups of sons, cf. Irish cognate Mac-), mead-settles took,
[6] egsode eorl. Syððan ærest wearð awed earls (leaders of men). Sith (since) erst (first) [he] worth (came to be)
[7] feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, fewshiped (helpless, in "fewship") founden, he [in a state of] loving care abode (lived),
[8] weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah, wex (waxed) under welkin (the clouds), [in] mind's-worth (honour) thrived,
[9] oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra oth that (until that) [to] him each [of] those [who were] by-sitting ("sitting" or dwelling roundabout)
[10] ofer hronrade hyran scolde, over whale-road (kenning for sea) hear (obedience) should (owed),
[11] gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning! gifts [to] yield. That was [a] good king!

现代英语意译:

“Listen! We have heard of the glory of the Spear-Danes, of the kings of the people, in days of yore, [and] how those princes did deeds of glory. Often Scyld Scefing deprived armed bands of foes, many clans of mead-benches, [and] terrified warriors. Since he first was found helpless (he experienced comfort for that), he grew under the heavens, thrived with honours, until each of the nearby peoples over the sea were obliged to pay him tribute. That was a good king!”

下文节选自《主祷文》（The Lord's Prayer）

行 原始 直译
[1] Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, Father of ours, thou who art in heavens,
[2] Sī þīn nama ġehālgod. Be thy name hallowed.
[3] Tōbecume þīn rīċe, Come thy riche (kingdom),
[4] ġewurþe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth as also in heaven.
[5] Ūre ġedæġhwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tō dæġ, Our daily loaf do sell (give) to us today,
[6] and forġyf ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġyfað ūrum gyltendum. And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilters [3]
[7] And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālȳs ūs of yfele. And do not lead thou us into temptation, but alese (release/deliver) us of (from) evil.
[8] Sōþlīċe. Soothly.

下文节选自《Charter of Cnut》

原始 直译
¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice. ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'(people's)'-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and lesser (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.
And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage. And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be [a] hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to [the] rights(laws) worldly.
¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde. ¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) [to] sell'(give).
¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum. ¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that [unfrith] totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial contribution).
Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð. Tho(then) [a] man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of(from): and that[harm] have [I], mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.

参看

引用

  1. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (编). Old English. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 2016. 
  2. ↑ 无法确定拼作ie/īe的双元音对究竟是[i(ː)y]还是[i(ː)e]. 该构拟基于许多方言并之入/y(ː)/.
  3. ↑ Lit. a participle: "guilting" or "[a person who is] sinning"; cf. Latin cognate -ant/-ent.
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  1. ↑ Aitken, A. J. and McArthur, T. Eds. (1979) Languages of Scotland. Edinburgh,Chambers. p. 87
  2. ↑ McClure (1991) in The Cambridge History of the English Language Vol. 5. p. 23.
  3. ↑ Robinson M. (ed.) (1985) the "Concise Scots Dictionary, Chambers, Edinburgh. p. xiii
  4. ↑ Dareau M., Pike l. and Watson, H (eds) (2002) "A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue" Vol. XII, Oxford University Press. p. xxxiv
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