邏輯論證

在邏輯中，論證是被稱做前提的一連串陳述，以嘗試證明結論的真實性。演繹和歸納推理的證明過程形成了論證，並假定了某種交流方式，它可以是書寫的文本、演講或交談。

概述

一般的，哲學和科學論證也常使用溯因論證和類推論證。論證可以是有效的或無效的，儘管如何確定論證是這兩個範疇中的某一個，自身也經常是大量討論的對象。非形式的，你可能期望有效的論證是強制性的，在它有能力使人信服結論的真實性的意義上。但是，這樣的有效性標準是不充足的甚至是令人誤解的，因為這更多的依賴於構造論證的人的技巧去操縱要說服的人，而更少依賴於論證自身。

論證的有效性的更少主觀性的標準經常是明顯需要的，並且在某些情況下我們甚至期望一個論證是嚴格的，就是說，堅持精確的有效性規則。這是在數學證明中使用的論證的情況。注意嚴格的證明不必須是形式證明。

在平常語言中，人們提及論證的邏輯，或使用暗示了一個論證是基於形式邏輯的推理規則的術語。儘管論證確可使用無可爭議的純邏輯推論（比如三段論），在實際論證中幾乎總是使用其他種類的推論。例如，常處理因果關係、或然性和統計或更特殊化的領域如經濟學的論證。在這些情況下，邏輯指稱論證的結構而不是可以用在其中的純邏輯的原理。

參考文獻

Shaw, Warren Choate. The Art of Debate. Allyn and Bacon. 1922: 74.
Robert Audi, Epistemology, Routledge, 1998. Particularly relevant is Chapter 6, which explores the relationship between knowledge, inference and argument.
J. L. Austin How to Do Things With Words, Oxford University Press, 1976.
H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation in The Logic of Grammar, Dickenson, 1975.
Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8
R. A. DeMillo, R. J. Lipton and A. J. Perlis, Social Processes and Proofs of Theorems and Programs, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1979. A classic article on the social process of acceptance of proofs in mathematics.
Yu. Manin, A Course in Mathematical Logic, Springer Verlag, 1977. A mathematical view of logic. This book is different from most books on mathematical logic in that it emphasizes the mathematics of logic, as opposed to the formal structure of logic.
Ch. Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric, Notre Dame, 1970. This classic was originally published in French in 1958.
Henri Poincaré, Science and Hypothesis, Dover Publications, 1952
Frans van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst, Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions, Foris Publications, 1984.
K. R. Popper Objective Knowledge; An Evolutionary Approach, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
L. S. Stebbing, A Modern Introduction to Logic, Methuen and Co., 1948. An account of logic that covers the classic topics of logic and argument while carefully considering modern developments in logic.
Douglas Walton, Informal Logic: A Handbook for Critical Argumentation, Cambridge, 1998.
Walton, Douglas; Christopher Reed; Fabrizio Macagno, Argumentation Schemes, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Carlos Chesñevar, Ana Maguitman and Ronald Loui, Logical Models of Argument, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 32, num. 4, pp. 337–383, 2000.
T. Edward Damer. Attacking Faulty Reasoning, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005. ISBN 0-534-60516-8
Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. 1989.
Charles Arthur Willard, Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge. 1982.

延伸閱讀

Salmon, Wesley C. Logic. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (1963). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 63-10528.
Aristotle, Prior and Posterior Analytics. Ed. and trans. John Warrington. London: Dent (1964)
Mates, Benson. Elementary Logic. New York: OUP (1972). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 74-166004.
Mendelson, Elliot. Introduction to Mathematical Logic. New York: Van Nostran Reinholds Company (1964).
Frege, Gottlob. The Foundations of Arithmetic. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press (1980).
Martin, Brian. The Controversy Manual (Sparsnäs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014).

外部連結

Argument | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy