逻辑论证

在逻辑中，论证是被称做前提的一连串陈述，以尝试证明结论的真实性。演绎和归纳推理的证明过程形成了论证，并假定了某种交流方式，它可以是书写的文本、演讲或交谈。

概述

一般的，哲学和科学论证也常使用溯因论证和类推论证。论证可以是有效的或无效的，尽管如何确定论证是这两个范畴中的某一个，自身也经常是大量讨论的对象。非形式的，你可能期望有效的论证是强制性的，在它有能力使人信服结论的真实性的意义上。但是，这样的有效性标准是不充足的甚至是令人误解的，因为这更多的依赖于构造论证的人的技巧去操纵要说服的人，而更少依赖于论证自身。

论证的有效性的更少主观性的标准经常是明显需要的，并且在某些情况下我们甚至期望一个论证是严格的，就是说，坚持精确的有效性规则。这是在数学证明中使用的论证的情况。注意严格的证明不必须是形式证明。

在平常语言中，人们提及论证的逻辑，或使用暗示了一个论证是基于形式逻辑的推理规则的术语。尽管论证确可使用无可争议的纯逻辑推论（比如三段论），在实际论证中几乎总是使用其他种类的推论。例如，常处理因果关系、或然性和统计或更特殊化的领域如经济学的论证。在这些情况下，逻辑指称论证的结构而不是可以用在其中的纯逻辑的原理。

参考文献

Shaw, Warren Choate. The Art of Debate. Allyn and Bacon. 1922: 74.
Robert Audi, Epistemology, Routledge, 1998. Particularly relevant is Chapter 6, which explores the relationship between knowledge, inference and argument.
J. L. Austin How to Do Things With Words, Oxford University Press, 1976.
H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation in The Logic of Grammar, Dickenson, 1975.
Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8
R. A. DeMillo, R. J. Lipton and A. J. Perlis, Social Processes and Proofs of Theorems and Programs, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1979. A classic article on the social process of acceptance of proofs in mathematics.
Yu. Manin, A Course in Mathematical Logic, Springer Verlag, 1977. A mathematical view of logic. This book is different from most books on mathematical logic in that it emphasizes the mathematics of logic, as opposed to the formal structure of logic.
Ch. Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric, Notre Dame, 1970. This classic was originally published in French in 1958.
Henri Poincaré, Science and Hypothesis, Dover Publications, 1952
Frans van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst, Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions, Foris Publications, 1984.
K. R. Popper Objective Knowledge; An Evolutionary Approach, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
L. S. Stebbing, A Modern Introduction to Logic, Methuen and Co., 1948. An account of logic that covers the classic topics of logic and argument while carefully considering modern developments in logic.
Douglas Walton, Informal Logic: A Handbook for Critical Argumentation, Cambridge, 1998.
Walton, Douglas; Christopher Reed; Fabrizio Macagno, Argumentation Schemes, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Carlos Chesñevar, Ana Maguitman and Ronald Loui, Logical Models of Argument, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 32, num. 4, pp. 337–383, 2000.
T. Edward Damer. Attacking Faulty Reasoning, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005. ISBN 0-534-60516-8
Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. 1989.
Charles Arthur Willard, Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge. 1982.

延伸阅读

Salmon, Wesley C. Logic. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (1963). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 63-10528.
Aristotle, Prior and Posterior Analytics. Ed. and trans. John Warrington. London: Dent (1964)
Mates, Benson. Elementary Logic. New York: OUP (1972). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 74-166004.
Mendelson, Elliot. Introduction to Mathematical Logic. New York: Van Nostran Reinholds Company (1964).
Frege, Gottlob. The Foundations of Arithmetic. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press (1980).
Martin, Brian. The Controversy Manual (Sparsnäs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014).

外部链接

Argument | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy