恐手龍屬:修订间差异

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{{Automatic Taxobox
{{Automatic Taxobox
| taxon = Deinocheirus
| taxon = Deinocheirus
| fossil_range = [[白堊紀]]晚期,{{fossil_range|71|69}}
| fossil_range = [[白垩纪]]晚期,{{fossil_range|71|69}}
| image = Deinocheirus mount.jpg
| image = Deinocheirus mount.jpg
| image_width = 270px
| image_width = 270px
| image_alt = 骨骼
| image_alt = 骨骼
| image_caption = 恐手的骨架模型,[[京]][[立科博物|上野立科博物]]展出
| image_caption = 恐手的骨架模型,[[京]][[立科博物|上野立科博物]]展出
| authority = [[哈茲卡·斯穆斯卡|Osmólska]] & Roniewicz, 1970
| authority = [[哈茲卡·斯穆斯卡|Osmólska]] & Roniewicz, 1970
| type_species = '''奇恐手<br />''Deinocheirus mirificus'''''
| type_species = '''奇恐手<br />''Deinocheirus mirificus'''''
| type_species_authority = Osmólska & Roniewicz, 1970
| type_species_authority = Osmólska & Roniewicz, 1970
}}
}}


'''恐手龍屬'''([[名|名]]:{{lang|la|''Deinocheirus''}},发音:{{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|aɪ|n|oʊ-|ˈ|k|aɪ|r|ə|s}} {{respell|DY|no|KY|rəs}})是生存于大约7000万年前[[白垩纪]]晚期的一[[属]]大型[[似鸟龙类]],属名在[[希腊语]]中意为“恐怖的手”。1965年,[[蒙古]]的{{le|耐梅盖特组|Nemegt Formation}}首次发现恐手龙的一对大型前肢、肩带和其它骨骼;1970年,此标本成为该属唯一种'''奇异恐手龙'''(''Deinocheirus mirificus'')的[[正模标本]];近50年来没有发现更多遗骸,其性质仍然是个谜;2014年叙述了两件更完整的标本,揭示了该属许多方面的特点,一部分新化石在几年前被走私者从[[蒙古]]偷走,但在2014年被成功追回。
'''恐手龙属'''([[名|名]]:{{lang|la|''Deinocheirus''}},发音:{{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|aɪ|n|oʊ-|ˈ|k|aɪ|r|ə|s}} {{respell|DY|no|KY|rəs}})是生存于大约7000万年前[[白垩纪]]晚期的一[[属]]大型[[似鸟龙类]],属名在[[希腊语]]中意为“恐怖的手”。1965年,[[蒙古]]的{{le|耐梅盖特组|Nemegt Formation}}首次发现恐手龙的一对大型前肢、肩带和其它骨骼;1970年,此标本成为该属唯一种'''奇异恐手龙'''(''Deinocheirus mirificus'')的[[正模标本]];近50年来没有发现更多遗骸,其性质仍然是个谜;2014年叙述了两件更完整的标本,揭示了该属许多方面的特点,一部分新化石在几年前被走私者从[[蒙古]]偷走,但在2014年被成功追回。


恐手龙是一种不寻常的似鸟龙类,也是该[[演化支]]中体型最大的物种,长{{cvt|11|m}},重{{cvt|6.4|t|ST}},颅骨长{{cvt|1.024|m|ft}}、喙宽、下颌深,形狀类似[[鸭嘴龙科]]。虽然它是一种庞大的动物,但具有许多中空的骨骼,从而减轻了重量。其手臂是所有双足恐龙中最大的,长{{cvt|2.4|m|ft}},三指的手上长有大而钝的爪子。腿相对较短、脚爪较钝,其脊椎带有很高的神经棘,沿背部形成一个“[[神经棘帆|帆]]”。大多数椎骨和部分其它骨骼被嵌入的{{le|气腔|air sacs}}所{{le|“充气”|Skeletal pneumaticity}}(pneumatised)。尾巴末端有一节类似[[尾综骨]]的椎骨,表明此处存在一个由羽毛构成的扇状物。
恐手龙是一种不寻常的似鸟龙类,也是该[[演化支]]中体型最大的物种,长{{cvt|11|m}},重{{cvt|6.4|t|ST}},颅骨长{{cvt|1.024|m|ft}}、喙宽、下颌深,形狀类似[[鸭嘴龙科]]。虽然它是一种庞大的动物,但具有许多中空的骨骼,从而减轻了重量。其手臂是所有双足恐龙中最大的,长{{cvt|2.4|m|ft}},三指的手上长有大而钝的爪子。腿相对较短、脚爪较钝,其脊椎带有很高的神经棘,沿背部形成一个“[[神经棘帆|帆]]”。大多数椎骨和部分其它骨骼被嵌入的{{le|气腔|air sacs}}所{{le|“充气”|Skeletal pneumaticity}}(pneumatised)。尾巴末端有一节类似[[尾综骨]]的椎骨,表明此处存在一个由羽毛构成的扇状物。


恐手龙的分类长期不明,它最初被归入[[兽脚亚目]]分类群[[肉食龙类]],但其与似鸟龙类的相似之处很快被发现。在发现更完整的遗骸之后,恐手龙被证明为一种原始的似鸟龙类恐龙,与较小的[[似金翅鸟龙]]和[[北山龍屬 (蜥臀目)|北山龙]]关系最为密切,并共同构成了[[恐手龙科]]。该分类群的成员不像其他似鸟龙类那样适应高速奔跑。恐手龙被认为是一种[[杂食动物]]:其颅骨形状表明它以植物为食,但在一件标本中发现了[[鱼鳞]],其胃部也发现了[[胃石]]。它的大爪子可能是用来挖掘和采集植物的。恐手龙骨骼上的咬痕被认为是由[[暴龙科]]的[[特暴龙]]所造成。
恐手龙的分类长期不明,它最初被归入[[兽脚亚目]]分类群[[肉食龙类]],但其与似鸟龙类的相似之处很快被发现。在发现更完整的遗骸之后,恐手龙被证明为一种原始的似鸟龙类恐龙,与较小的[[似金翅鸟龙]]和[[北山龙属 (蜥臀目)|北山龙]]关系最为密切,并共同构成了[[恐手龙科]]。该分类群的成员不像其他似鸟龙类那样适应高速奔跑。恐手龙被认为是一种[[杂食动物]]:其颅骨形状表明它以植物为食,但在一件标本中发现了[[鱼鳞]],其胃部也发现了[[胃石]]。它的大爪子可能是用来挖掘和采集植物的。恐手龙骨骼上的咬痕被认为是由[[暴龙科]]的[[特暴龙]]所造成。


== 发现 ==
== 发现 ==
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恐手龙的第一具已知化石由波兰古生物学家{{le|索非亚·凯兰·加沃罗斯卡|Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska}}于1965年7月9日在[[戈壁沙漠]]{{le|耐梅盖特盆地|Nemegt Basin}}的Altan Ula III地([[坐标]]:{{coord|43|33.987|N|100|28.959|E}})发现。在1963至1965年波兰-蒙古的联合考察的期间,她是一支由蒙古古生物学家{{le|瑞钦·巴思钵|Rinchen Barsbold}}所领导的波兰团队的一员,该团队由[[波兰科学院]]和[[蒙古科学院]]所组织。工作人员在7月9日至11日挖掘标本并将其装载到车辆上。凯兰-加沃罗斯卡和纳丁·多夫钦(Naydin Dovchin)在1968年的一份报告中总结了探险队的成就,宣布这些遗骸代表[[兽脚类]]恐龙的一个新[[科 (生物)|科]]。<ref name="nature13874"/><ref name="KJ68"/>
恐手龙的第一具已知化石由波兰古生物学家{{le|索非亚·凯兰·加沃罗斯卡|Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska}}于1965年7月9日在[[戈壁沙漠]]{{le|耐梅盖特盆地|Nemegt Basin}}的Altan Ula III地([[坐标]]:{{coord|43|33.987|N|100|28.959|E}})发现。在1963至1965年波兰-蒙古的联合考察的期间,她是一支由蒙古古生物学家{{le|瑞钦·巴思钵|Rinchen Barsbold}}所领导的波兰团队的一员,该团队由[[波兰科学院]]和[[蒙古科学院]]所组织。工作人员在7月9日至11日挖掘标本并将其装载到车辆上。凯兰-加沃罗斯卡和纳丁·多夫钦(Naydin Dovchin)在1968年的一份报告中总结了探险队的成就,宣布这些遗骸代表[[兽脚类]]恐龙的一个新[[科 (生物)|科]]。<ref name="nature13874"/><ref name="KJ68"/>


标本发现于一座小山的[[砂岩]]中,由部分没有关节的骨骼组成,其中大部分在发现时可能已经被侵蚀掉了。标本由两个前肢组成,缺乏右手爪、完整的肩带、三个背椎椎体、五根肋骨、腹肋和两个角鳃骨,随后成为恐手龙的[[正模标本]],并在1970年由[[哈兹卡·奥斯穆斯卡]](Halszka Osmólska)和[[伊娃·尼威茨]](Ewa Roniewicz)表,是第一完全由女性科家命名的恐。属名取自[[希腊语]]''deinos''(Δεννός,意为“可怕的”)和''cheir''(χεΓρ,意为“手”),指其巨大的前肢及手爪;[[种名]]取自[[拉丁语]],意思是“不寻常的”或“奇怪的”,指前肢不寻常的结构。<ref name="osmolska&roniewicz1970"/>波兰-蒙古探险队以女性为领队而闻名,她们是最早命名新恐龙的人之一。<ref name="dodson98"/>正模标本的原始编号为ZPal MgD-I/6,但后来被重新归类于MPC-D100/18。<ref name=nature13874/>
标本发现于一座小山的[[砂岩]]中,由部分没有关节的骨骼组成,其中大部分在发现时可能已经被侵蚀掉了。标本由两个前肢组成,缺乏右手爪、完整的肩带、三个背椎椎体、五根肋骨、腹肋和两个角鳃骨,随后成为恐手龙的[[正模标本]],并在1970年由[[哈兹卡·奥斯穆斯卡]](Halszka Osmólska)和[[伊娃·尼威茨]](Ewa Roniewicz)表,是第一完全由女性科家命名的恐。属名取自[[希腊语]]''deinos''(Δεννός,意为“可怕的”)和''cheir''(χεΓρ,意为“手”),指其巨大的前肢及手爪;[[种名]]取自[[拉丁语]],意思是“不寻常的”或“奇怪的”,指前肢不寻常的结构。<ref name="osmolska&roniewicz1970"/>波兰-蒙古探险队以女性为领队而闻名,她们是最早命名新恐龙的人之一。<ref name="dodson98"/>正模标本的原始编号为ZPal MgD-I/6,但后来被重新归类于MPC-D100/18。<ref name=nature13874/>


[[File:Deinocheirusbcn.JPG|缩略图|alt=Original arms|在{{le|巴塞罗纳宇宙科学馆|CosmoCaixa}}临时展出的[[正模标本]]MPC-D 100/18的前肢和肩带]]
[[File:Deinocheirusbcn.JPG|缩略图|alt=Original arms|在{{le|巴塞罗纳宇宙科学馆|CosmoCaixa}}临时展出的[[正模标本]]MPC-D 100/18的前肢和肩带]]
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当恐手龙仅所知于最初的前肢时,其演化关系很难测定,因此有几个假设被提出。<ref name="holtz2014"/>奥兹穆斯卡和罗涅维茨最初得出结论说恐手龙不属于兽脚类中已命名的任何一科,因此他们创造了[[单系群|单型科]][[恐手龙科]],由于恐手龙尺寸巨大且肢骨较厚骨壁,他们将其置于[[肉食龙下目]],但他们同样发现其与似鸟龙之间的一些相似之处以及与[[异特龙]]较小的相似程度。<ref name="osmolska&roniewicz1970"/>1971年,{{le|约翰·奥斯特罗姆|John Ostrom}}首次提出恐手龙属于似鸟龙类,并注意到它同时具有似鸟龙类和非似鸟龙类恐龙的[[特征]]。 <ref name=nature13874/><ref name="holtz2014"/>1976年,{{le|瑞钦·巴思钵|Rhinchen Barsbold}}命名了[[恐手龙科|恐手龙类]](Deinocheirosauria),其中包括所谓的相关属恐手龙和镰刀龙。恐手龙和长臂的镰刀龙类之间的关系得到了后来一些作家的支持,但它们在今天并不被认为是密切相关的。<ref name="kobayashi&barsbold2006"/>
当恐手龙仅所知于最初的前肢时,其演化关系很难测定,因此有几个假设被提出。<ref name="holtz2014"/>奥兹穆斯卡和罗涅维茨最初得出结论说恐手龙不属于兽脚类中已命名的任何一科,因此他们创造了[[单系群|单型科]][[恐手龙科]],由于恐手龙尺寸巨大且肢骨较厚骨壁,他们将其置于[[肉食龙下目]],但他们同样发现其与似鸟龙之间的一些相似之处以及与[[异特龙]]较小的相似程度。<ref name="osmolska&roniewicz1970"/>1971年,{{le|约翰·奥斯特罗姆|John Ostrom}}首次提出恐手龙属于似鸟龙类,并注意到它同时具有似鸟龙类和非似鸟龙类恐龙的[[特征]]。 <ref name=nature13874/><ref name="holtz2014"/>1976年,{{le|瑞钦·巴思钵|Rhinchen Barsbold}}命名了[[恐手龙科|恐手龙类]](Deinocheirosauria),其中包括所谓的相关属恐手龙和镰刀龙。恐手龙和长臂的镰刀龙类之间的关系得到了后来一些作家的支持,但它们在今天并不被认为是密切相关的。<ref name="kobayashi&barsbold2006"/>


2004年,彼得·马克维奇(Peter Makovicky)、小林快次和菲力·柯里(Philip Currie)指出恐手龙很可能是一种原始[[似鸟龙类]],因为它缺乏[[似鸟龙科]]的一些典型特征。<ref name="makovickyetal2004"/>原始特征包括其下弯的爪子、较低的肱骨与肩胛骨比率以及缺乏韧带联合。小林和巴思钵2006年的一项研究发现恐手龙可能是最原始的似鸟龙类,但由于缺乏颅骨和后肢骨骼而无法进一步确定其亲缘关系。<ref name="kobayashi&barsbold2006"/>2014年对两件更完整标本的叙述进行的[[系统发育分析]]发现,恐手龙与[[似金翅鸟龙]]和[[北山龍屬 (蜥臀目)|北山龙]]形成一个演化支,因此包括在恐手龙科中,其[[演化树]]如下:<ref name=nature13874/>
2004年,彼得·马克维奇(Peter Makovicky)、小林快次和菲力·柯里(Philip Currie)指出恐手龙很可能是一种原始[[似鸟龙类]],因为它缺乏[[似鸟龙科]]的一些典型特征。<ref name="makovickyetal2004"/>原始特征包括其下弯的爪子、较低的肱骨与肩胛骨比率以及缺乏韧带联合。小林和巴思钵2006年的一项研究发现恐手龙可能是最原始的似鸟龙类,但由于缺乏颅骨和后肢骨骼而无法进一步确定其亲缘关系。<ref name="kobayashi&barsbold2006"/>2014年对两件更完整标本的叙述进行的[[系统发育分析]]发现,恐手龙与[[似金翅鸟龙]]和[[北山龙属 (蜥臀目)|北山龙]]形成一个演化支,因此包括在恐手龙科中,其[[演化树]]如下:<ref name=nature13874/>
[[File:Deinocheirus hands.jpg|缩略图|alt=手臀|巴塞罗纳宇宙科学馆临时展出中的[[正模标本]]MPC-D 100/18]]
[[File:Deinocheirus hands.jpg|缩略图|alt=手臀|巴塞罗纳宇宙科学馆临时展出中的[[正模标本]]MPC-D 100/18]]
{{clade| style=font-size:100%;line-height:80%
{{clade| style=font-size:100%;line-height:80%
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|label1=[[恐手龙科]] Deinocheiridae
|label1=[[恐手龙科]] Deinocheiridae
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[北山龍屬 (蜥臀目)|北山龙]] ''Beishanlong''
|1=[[北山龙属 (蜥臀目)|北山龙]] ''Beishanlong''
|label2=<span style="color:white;">未命名种</span>
|label2=<span style="color:white;">未命名种</span>
|2={{clade
|2={{clade
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== 参考资料 ==
== 参考资料 ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="nature13874">{{cite journal | title=Resolving the long-standing enigmas of a giant ornithomimosaur ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' | last1=Lee | first1=Y.N. | last2=Barsbold | first2=R. | last3=Currie | first3=P.J. | last4=Kobayashi | first4=Y. | last5=Lee | first5=H.J. | last6=Godefroit | first6=P. | last7=Escuillié | first7=F.O. | last8=Chinzorig | first8=T. | journal=Nature | year=2014 | volume=515 | issue=7526 | pages=257–260 | doi=10.1038/nature13874| pmid=25337880 | bibcode=2014Natur.515..257L }}</ref>
<ref name="nature13874">{{cite journal | title=Resolving the long-standing enigmas of a giant ornithomimosaur ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' | last1=Lee | first1=Y.N. | last2=Barsbold | first2=R. | last3=Currie | first3=P.J. | last4=Kobayashi | first4=Y. | last5=Lee | first5=H.J. | last6=Godefroit | first6=P. | last7=Escuillié | first7=F.O. | last8=Chinzorig | first8=T. | journal=Nature | year=2014 | volume=515 | issue=7526 | pages=257–260 | doi=10.1038/nature13874| pmid=25337880 | bibcode=2014Natur.515..257L }}</ref>


<ref name="senter&robins2010">{{cite journal | url=http://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/research/no_14/bulletin14_1.pdf | title=Hip heights of the gigantic theropod dinosaurs ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' and ''Therizinosaurus cheloniformis'', and implications for museum mounting and paleoecology | last1=Senter | first1=P. | last2=Robins | first2=J.H. | journal=Bulletin of the Gunma Museum of Natural History | year=2010 | issue=14 | pages=1–10 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2015-09-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022701/http://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/research/no_14/bulletin14_1.pdf | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="senter&robins2010">{{cite journal | url=http://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/research/no_14/bulletin14_1.pdf | title=Hip heights of the gigantic theropod dinosaurs ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' and ''Therizinosaurus cheloniformis'', and implications for museum mounting and paleoecology | last1=Senter | first1=P. | last2=Robins | first2=J.H. | journal=Bulletin of the Gunma Museum of Natural History | year=2010 | issue=14 | pages=1–10 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="paul2010">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/princetonfieldgu0000paul/page/112 | title=The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs | publisher=Princeton University Press | last=Paul | first=G.S. | year=2010 | page=[https://archive.org/details/princetonfieldgu0000paul/page/112 112] | isbn=978-0-691-13720-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="paul2010">{{cite book | | title=The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs | publisher=Princeton University Press | last=Paul | first=G.S. | year=2010 | page=112 | isbn=978-0-691-13720-9 }}</ref>


<ref name="molnar2002">{{cite journal | title=Dinosaurian and mammalian predators compared | last1=Valkenburgh | first1=B.V. | last2=Molnar | first2=R.E. | journal=Paleobiology | year=2002 | volume=28 | issue=4 | jstor=3595499 | pages=530–540 | doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2002)028<0527:dampc>2.0.co;2 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/890154 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2021-03-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310001319/https://zenodo.org/record/890154 | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="molnar2002">{{cite journal | title=Dinosaurian and mammalian predators compared | last1=Valkenburgh | first1=B.V. | last2=Molnar | first2=R.E. | journal=Paleobiology | year=2002 | volume=28 | issue=4 | jstor=3595499 | pages=530–540 | doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2002)028<0527:dampc>2.0.co;2 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/890154 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="osmolska&roniewicz1970">{{cite journal | url=http://palaeontologia.pan.pl/Archive/1969-21_5-22_1-5.pdf | title=Deinocheiridae, a new family of theropod dinosaurs | last1=Osmólska | first1=H. | last2=Roniewicz | first2=E. | journal=Palaeontologica Polonica | year=1970 | issue=21 | pages=5–19 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2016-03-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165953/http://palaeontologia.pan.pl/Archive/1969-21_5-22_1-5.pdf | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="osmolska&roniewicz1970">{{cite journal | url=http://palaeontologia.pan.pl/Archive/1969-21_5-22_1-5.pdf | title=Deinocheiridae, a new family of theropod dinosaurs | last1=Osmólska | first1=H. | last2=Roniewicz | first2=E. | journal=Palaeontologica Polonica | year=1970 | issue=21 | pages=5–19 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="middleton00">{{cite journal | title=Theropod forelimb design and evolution | last1=Middleton | first1=K.M. | last2=Gatesy | first2=S.M. | journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society | year=2000 | volume=128 | issue=2 | pages=160, 172 | doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb00160.x }}</ref>
<ref name="middleton00">{{cite journal | title=Theropod forelimb design and evolution | last1=Middleton | first1=K.M. | last2=Gatesy | first2=S.M. | journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society | year=2000 | volume=128 | issue=2 | pages=160, 172 | doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb00160.x }}</ref>
第146行: 第146行:
<ref name="holtz2014">{{cite journal | title=Paleontology: Mystery of the horrible hands solved | last=Holtz | first=T.R. |journal=Nature | year=2014 | volume=515 | issue=7526 | pages=203–205 | doi=10.1038/nature13930 | pmid=25337885| bibcode=2014Natur.515..203H }}</ref>
<ref name="holtz2014">{{cite journal | title=Paleontology: Mystery of the horrible hands solved | last=Holtz | first=T.R. |journal=Nature | year=2014 | volume=515 | issue=7526 | pages=203–205 | doi=10.1038/nature13930 | pmid=25337885| bibcode=2014Natur.515..203H }}</ref>


<ref name="KJ68">{{cite journal | url=http://palaeontologia.pan.pl/Archive/1968-19_7-30_1-4.pdf | title=Narrative of the Polish-Mongolian Palaeontological Expeditions 1963–1965 | last1=Kielan-Jaworowska | first1=Z. | last2=Dovchin | first2=N. | journal=Palaeontologica Polonica | year=1968 | volume=19 | page=24 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2020-07-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712160122/http://www.palaeontologia.pan.pl/Archive/1968-19_7-30_1-4.pdf | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="KJ68">{{cite journal | url=http://palaeontologia.pan.pl/Archive/1968-19_7-30_1-4.pdf | title=Narrative of the Polish-Mongolian Palaeontological Expeditions 1963–1965 | last1=Kielan-Jaworowska | first1=Z. | last2=Dovchin | first2=N. | journal=Palaeontologica Polonica | year=1968 | volume=19 | page=24 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="makovickyetal2004">{{cite book | chapter=Ornithomimosauria | editor-first=David B. | editor-last=Weishampel | editor2-first=Peter | editor2-last=Dodson | editor3-first=Halszka | editor3-last=Osmólska | title=The Dinosauria | url=https://archive.org/details/dinosauriandedit00weis | edition = 2 | publisher=University of California Press | last1=Makovicky | first1=P.J. | last2=Kobayashi | first2=Y. | last3=Currie | first3=P.J. | year=2004 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/dinosauriandedit00weis/page/137 137]–150 | isbn=978-0-520-24209-8}}</ref>
<ref name="makovickyetal2004">{{cite book | chapter=Ornithomimosauria | editor-first=David B. | editor-last=Weishampel | editor2-first=Peter | editor2-last=Dodson | editor3-first=Halszka | editor3-last=Osmólska | title=The Dinosauria | | edition = 2 | publisher=University of California Press | last1=Makovicky | first1=P.J. | last2=Kobayashi | first2=Y. | last3=Currie | first3=P.J. | year=2004 | pages=137–150 | isbn=978-0-520-24209-8}}</ref>


<ref name="dodson98">{{cite book | title=The Horned Dinosaurs: A Natural History | publisher=Princeton University Press | last=Dodson | first=P. | year=1998 | page=9 | isbn=978-0-691-05900-6}}</ref>
<ref name="dodson98">{{cite book | title=The Horned Dinosaurs: A Natural History | publisher=Princeton University Press | last=Dodson | first=P. | year=1998 | page=9 | isbn=978-0-691-05900-6}}</ref>


<ref name="kobayashi&barsbold2006">{{cite journal | url=http://cactus.dixie.edu/jharris/Kobayashi%26Barsbold_ornithomimids.pdf | title=Ornithomimids from the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia | last1=Kobayashi | first1=Y. | last2=Barsbold | first2=R. | journal=Journal of the Paleontological Society of Korea | year=2006 | volume=22 | issue=1 | pages=195–207 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2016-10-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020043436/http://cactus.dixie.edu/jharris/Kobayashi%26Barsbold_ornithomimids.pdf | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="kobayashi&barsbold2006">{{cite journal | url=http://cactus.dixie.edu/jharris/Kobayashi%26Barsbold_ornithomimids.pdf | title=Ornithomimids from the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia | last1=Kobayashi | first1=Y. | last2=Barsbold | first2=R. | journal=Journal of the Paleontological Society of Korea | year=2006 | volume=22 | issue=1 | pages=195–207 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="molnar-pathology">{{cite book | chapter=Theropod Paleopathology: a Literature Survey | editor-first=Darren H. | editor-last=Tanke | editor2-first=Kenneth | editor2-last=Carpenter | title=Mesozoic Vertebrate Life | publisher=Indiana University Press | last=Molnar | first=R.E. | year=2001 | page=[https://archive.org/details/mesozoicvertebra0000unse/page/343 343] | isbn=978-0-253-33907-2 | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mesozoicvertebra0000unse/page/343 }}</ref>
<ref name="molnar-pathology">{{cite book | chapter=Theropod Paleopathology: a Literature Survey | editor-first=Darren H. | editor-last=Tanke | editor2-first=Kenneth | editor2-last=Carpenter | title=Mesozoic Vertebrate Life | publisher=Indiana University Press | last=Molnar | first=R.E. | year=2001 | page=343 | isbn=978-0-253-33907-2 }}</ref>


<ref name="bell2012">{{cite journal | url=https://www.academia.edu/1900689 | title=Tyrannosaur feeding traces on ''Deinocheirus'' (Theropoda:?Ornithomimosauria) remains from the Nemegt Formation (Late Cretaceous), Mongolia | last1=Bell | first1=P.R. | last2=Currie | first2=P.J. | last3=Lee | first3=Y.N. | journal=Cretaceous Research | year=2012 | volume=37 | pages=186–190 | doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2012.03.018}}</ref>
<ref name="bell2012">{{cite journal | url=https://www.academia.edu/1900689 | title=Tyrannosaur feeding traces on ''Deinocheirus'' (Theropoda:?Ornithomimosauria) remains from the Nemegt Formation (Late Cretaceous), Mongolia | last1=Bell | first1=P.R. | last2=Currie | first2=P.J. | last3=Lee | first3=Y.N. | journal=Cretaceous Research | year=2012 | volume=37 | pages=186–190 | doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2012.03.018}}</ref>


<ref name="casts">{{cite web|url=http://www.dinocasts.com/prod_catalog3_exhibit.asp?ObjectId=24 |title=Cretaceous Mongolian Dinosaurs |publisher=DinoCasts.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202164543/http://www.dinocasts.com/prod_catalog3_exhibit.asp?ObjectId=24 |archive-date=February 2, 2015 }}</ref>
<ref name="casts">{{cite web|url=http://www.dinocasts.com/prod_catalog3_exhibit.asp?ObjectId=24 |title=Cretaceous Mongolian Dinosaurs |publisher=DinoCasts.com }}</ref>


<ref name="lautersetal2014">{{cite journal|url=http://vertpaleo.org/PDFS/9c/9ce46057-c8cc-45f2-95ae-767eb679dafd.pdf |title=The brain of ''Deinocheirus mirificus'', a gigantic ornithomimosaurian dinosaur from the Cretaceous of Mongolia |last1=Lauters |first1=P. |last2=Lee |first2=Y.N. |last3=Barsbold |first3=R. |last4=Currie |first4=P.J. |last5=Kobayashi |first5=Y. |last6=Escuillé |first6=F.O. |last7=Godefroit |first7=P. |journal=Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Abstracts of Papers |year=2014 |page=166 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204115033/http://vertpaleo.org/PDFS/9c/9ce46057-c8cc-45f2-95ae-767eb679dafd.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-04 }}</ref>
<ref name="lautersetal2014">{{cite journal|url=http://vertpaleo.org/PDFS/9c/9ce46057-c8cc-45f2-95ae-767eb679dafd.pdf |title=The brain of ''Deinocheirus mirificus'', a gigantic ornithomimosaurian dinosaur from the Cretaceous of Mongolia |last1=Lauters |first1=P. |last2=Lee |first2=Y.N. |last3=Barsbold |first3=R. |last4=Currie |first4=P.J. |last5=Kobayashi |first5=Y. |last6=Escuillé |first6=F.O. |last7=Godefroit |first7=P. |journal=Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Abstracts of Papers |year=2014 |page=166 }}</ref>


<ref name="Kundrát&Lee2015">{{cite journal | url=http://eavp2015.uni.opole.pl/biblioteka/docs/Abstract-book.pdf | title=First insights into the bone microstructure of ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' | last1=Kundrát | first1=M. | last2=Lee | first2=Y.N. | journal=13th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Vertebrate Palaeontologists | year=2015 | page=25 | access-date=2015-07-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720230320/http://eavp2015.uni.opole.pl/biblioteka/docs/Abstract-book.pdf | archive-date=2015-07-20 }}</ref>
<ref name="Kundrát&Lee2015">{{cite journal | url=http://eavp2015.uni.opole.pl/biblioteka/docs/Abstract-book.pdf | title=First insights into the bone microstructure of ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' | last1=Kundrát | first1=M. | last2=Lee | first2=Y.N. | journal=13th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Vertebrate Palaeontologists | year=2015 | page=25 | access-date=2015-07-17 }}</ref>


<ref name="paul1988">{{cite book | title=Predatory Dinosaurs of the World | publisher=Simon & Schuster | last=Paul | first=G.S. | year=1988 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/predatorydinosau00paul/page/228 228, 382] | isbn=978-0-671-61946-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/predatorydinosau00paul/page/228 }}</ref>
<ref name="paul1988">{{cite book | title=Predatory Dinosaurs of the World | publisher=Simon & Schuster | last=Paul | first=G.S. | year=1988 | pages=228, 382 | isbn=978-0-671-61946-6 }}</ref>


<ref name="Rozhdestvensky1970">{{cite journal | title=Gigantskiye kogti zagadochnykh mezozoyskikh reptiliy | last=Rozhdestvensky | first=A.K. | journal=Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal | issue=1 | pages=117–125 | language=ru | trans-title=Giant claws of enigmatic Mesozoic reptiles | year=1970 | volume=1970}}</ref>
<ref name="Rozhdestvensky1970">{{cite journal | title=Gigantskiye kogti zagadochnykh mezozoyskikh reptiliy | last=Rozhdestvensky | first=A.K. | journal=Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal | issue=1 | pages=117–125 | language=ru | trans-title=Giant claws of enigmatic Mesozoic reptiles | year=1970 | volume=1970}}</ref>
第170行: 第170行:
<ref name="jerzykiewiczrussell1991">{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222901764 | title=Late Mesozoic stratigraphy and vertebrates of the Gobi Basin | last1=Jerzykiewicz | first1=T. | last2=Russell | first2=D.A. | journal=Cretaceous Research | year=1991 | volume=12 | issue=4 | pages=345–377 | doi=10.1016/0195-6671(91)90015-5}}</ref>
<ref name="jerzykiewiczrussell1991">{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222901764 | title=Late Mesozoic stratigraphy and vertebrates of the Gobi Basin | last1=Jerzykiewicz | first1=T. | last2=Russell | first2=D.A. | journal=Cretaceous Research | year=1991 | volume=12 | issue=4 | pages=345–377 | doi=10.1016/0195-6671(91)90015-5}}</ref>


<ref name="sullivan2006">{{cite book | chapter=A taxonomic review of the Pachycephalosauridae (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) | chapter-url=http://www.robertmsullivanphd.com/uploads/130_Sullivan__2006__-Pachycephalosauridae.pdf | editor-first=Spencer G. | editor-last=Lucas | editor2-first=Robert M. | editor2-last=Sullivan | title=Late Cretaceous vertebrates from the Western Interior | publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin | last=Sullivan | first=R.M. | year=2006 | volume=35 | pages=347–366 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2007-09-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214216/http://www.robertmsullivanphd.com/uploads/130_Sullivan__2006__-Pachycephalosauridae.pdf | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="sullivan2006">{{cite book | chapter=A taxonomic review of the Pachycephalosauridae (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) | | editor-first=Spencer G. | editor-last=Lucas | editor2-first=Robert M. | editor2-last=Sullivan | title=Late Cretaceous vertebrates from the Western Interior | publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin | last=Sullivan | first=R.M. | year=2006 | volume=35 | pages=347–366 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="gradsteinetal2005">{{cite book | title=A Geologic Time Scale 2004 | url=https://archive.org/details/geologictimescal2004grad_003 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | last1=Gradstein | first1=F.M. | last2=Ogg | first2=J.G. | last3=Smith | first3=A.G. | year=2005 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/geologictimescal2004grad_003/page/n365 344]–371 | isbn=978-0-521-78142-8}}</ref>
<ref name="gradsteinetal2005">{{cite book | title=A Geologic Time Scale 2004 | | publisher=Cambridge University Press | last1=Gradstein | first1=F.M. | last2=Ogg | first2=J.G. | last3=Smith | first3=A.G. | year=2005 | pages=344–371 | isbn=978-0-521-78142-8}}</ref>


<ref name="N96">{{cite book | title=Dinosaurs of the Flaming Cliffs | url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_a5k1 | publisher=Anchor | last=Novacek | first=M. | year=1996 | page=[https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_a5k1/page/133 133] | isbn=978-0-385-47775-8}}</ref>
<ref name="N96">{{cite book | title=Dinosaurs of the Flaming Cliffs | | publisher=Anchor | last=Novacek | first=M. | year=1996 | page=133 | isbn=978-0-385-47775-8}}</ref>


<ref name="efimov1983">{{cite journal | title=Peresmotr iskopayemykh krokodilov Mongolii | last=Efimov | first=M.B. | journal=Sovmestnaya Sovetsko-Mongol'skaya Paleontologicheskaya Ekspeditsiya Trudy | pages=76–96 | language=ru | trans-title=Revision of the fossil crocodiles of Mongolia | year=1983 | volume=24}}</ref>
<ref name="efimov1983">{{cite journal | title=Peresmotr iskopayemykh krokodilov Mongolii | last=Efimov | first=M.B. | journal=Sovmestnaya Sovetsko-Mongol'skaya Paleontologicheskaya Ekspeditsiya Trudy | pages=76–96 | language=ru | trans-title=Revision of the fossil crocodiles of Mongolia | year=1983 | volume=24}}</ref>


<ref name="hurumsabath2003">{{cite journal | url=http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app48/app48-161.pdf | title=Giant theropod dinosaurs from Asia and North America: Skulls of ''Tarbosaurus bataar'' and ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' compared | last1=Hurum | first1=J.H. | last2=Sabath | first2=K. | journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica | year=2003 | volume=48 | issue=2 | page=188 | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2018-09-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921083518/http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app48/app48-161.pdf | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="hurumsabath2003">{{cite journal | url=http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app48/app48-161.pdf | title=Giant theropod dinosaurs from Asia and North America: Skulls of ''Tarbosaurus bataar'' and ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' compared | last1=Hurum | first1=J.H. | last2=Sabath | first2=K. | journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica | year=2003 | volume=48 | issue=2 | page=188 | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="holtz2004">{{cite book | chapter=Tyrannosauroidea | edition=2 | editor-first=David B. | editor-last=Weishampel | editor2-first=Peter | editor2-last=Dodson | editor3-first=Halszka | editor3-last=Osmólska | title=The Dinosauria | url=https://archive.org/details/dinosauriandedit00weis | publisher=University of California Press | last=Holtz | first=T.R. | year=2004 | page=[https://archive.org/details/dinosauriandedit00weis/page/124 124] | isbn=978-0-520-24209-8}}</ref>
<ref name="holtz2004">{{cite book | chapter=Tyrannosauroidea | edition=2 | editor-first=David B. | editor-last=Weishampel | editor2-first=Peter | editor2-last=Dodson | editor3-first=Halszka | editor3-last=Osmólska | title=The Dinosauria | | publisher=University of California Press | last=Holtz | first=T.R. | year=2004 | page=124 | isbn=978-0-520-24209-8}}</ref>


<ref name="natgeo2013">{{cite journal | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/11/131104-dinosaur-hands-arms-body-mongolia/ | title=Mystery Dinosaur Finally Gets a Body | date=November 4, 2013 | last=Switek | first=B. | journal=National Geographic Society | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2019-04-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416170205/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/11/131104-dinosaur-hands-arms-body-mongolia/ | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="natgeo2013">{{cite journal | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/11/131104-dinosaur-hands-arms-body-mongolia/ | title=Mystery Dinosaur Finally Gets a Body | date=November 4, 2013 | last=Switek | first=B. | journal=National Geographic Society | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="Deinocheirus New Scientist">{{cite journal | url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25551-stolen-dinosaur-head-reveals-weird-hybrid-species.html | title=Stolen dinosaur head reveals weird hybrid species | date=May 12, 2014 | last=Hecht | first=J. | journal=New Scientist | access-date=2021-02-01 | archive-date=2015-04-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424043451/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25551-stolen-dinosaur-head-reveals-weird-hybrid-species.html | dead-url=no }}</ref>
<ref name="Deinocheirus New Scientist">{{cite journal | url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25551-stolen-dinosaur-head-reveals-weird-hybrid-species.html | title=Stolen dinosaur head reveals weird hybrid species | date=May 12, 2014 | last=Hecht | first=J. | journal=New Scientist | access-date=2021-02-01 }}</ref>


<ref name="leeetal2013">{{cite journal|url=http://vertpaleo.org/PDFS/26/265d9fae-ea72-4f37-83e4-ec38a880abe8.pdf |title=New specimens of ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia |last1=Lee |first1=Y.N. |last2=Barsbold |first2=R. |last3=Currie |first3=P.J. |last4=Kobayashi |first4=Y. |last5=Lee |first5=H.J. |journal=Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Abstracts of Papers |year=2013 |page=161 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204122951/http://vertpaleo.org/PDFS/26/265d9fae-ea72-4f37-83e4-ec38a880abe8.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-04 }}</ref>
<ref name="leeetal2013">{{cite journal|url=http://vertpaleo.org/PDFS/26/265d9fae-ea72-4f37-83e4-ec38a880abe8.pdf |title=New specimens of ''Deinocheirus mirificus'' from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia |last1=Lee |first1=Y.N. |last2=Barsbold |first2=R. |last3=Currie |first3=P.J. |last4=Kobayashi |first4=Y. |last5=Lee |first5=H.J. |journal=Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Abstracts of Papers |year=2013 |page=161 }}</ref>


<ref name="infomongol">{{cite web|url=http://www.infomongolia.com/ct/ci/7787 |title=The "horrible hand" Deinocheirus dinosaur's fossils are repatriated to its home country |publisher=InfoMongolia.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512213648/http://www.infomongolia.com/ct/ci/7787 |archive-date=2014-05-12 }}</ref>
<ref name="infomongol">{{cite web|url=http://www.infomongolia.com/ct/ci/7787 |title=The "horrible hand" Deinocheirus dinosaur's fossils are repatriated to its home country |publisher=InfoMongolia.com }}</ref>
}}
}}
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