域（生物）：修订间差异

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[[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip zh.svg|200px|缩略图|[[生物分类法]]上八個主要的[[分类單元]]，生物被分成三個域，並進一步被划分成其他分类單元。本圖沒有顯示較小的中間分类單元。]]
[[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip zh.svg|200px|缩略图|[[生物分类法]]上八個主要的[[分类單元]]，生物被分成三個域，並進一步被划分成其他分类單元。本圖沒有顯示較小的中間分类單元。]]


在[[生物分类學]]中，'''域'''（{{lang-en|domain、superkingdom、empire}}、{{lang-la|regio}}）是美国生物学家[[卡爾·沃斯]]1990年设计的[[三域系統]]中最高的[[分类單元]]，該系統中，{{tsl|en|Tree of life (biology)|生命之樹 (生物)|生命之樹}}包含[[細菌]]、[[古菌]]与[[真核生物]]等三個域，其中前兩者為[[原核生物]]，不具有[[細胞核]]，後者則具有細胞核{{RefTag|{{Cite journal | author = Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. | url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576 | accessdate = 11 February 2010 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume = 87 | issue = 12 | pages = 4576–9 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2112744 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 | pmc = 54159 | bibcode = 1990PNAS...87.4576W | | | }}}}。
在[[生物分类學]]中，'''域'''（{{lang-en|domain、superkingdom、empire}}、{{lang-la|regio}}）是美国生物学家[[卡爾·沃斯]]1990年设计的[[三域系統]]中最高的[[分类單元]]，該系統中，{{tsl|en|Tree of life (biology)|生命之樹 (生物)|生命之樹}}包含[[細菌]]、[[古菌]]与[[真核生物]]等三個域，其中前兩者為[[原核生物]]，不具有[[細胞核]]，後者則具有細胞核{{RefTag|{{Cite journal | author = Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. | url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576 | accessdate = 2010-02-11 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume = 87 | issue = 12 | pages = 4576–9 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2112744 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 | pmc = 54159 | bibcode = 1990PNAS...87.4576W | | | }}}}。


== 三域生物特色 ==
== 三域生物特色 ==
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=== 古菌 ===
=== 古菌 ===
{{main|古菌}}
{{main|古菌}}
古菌屬於[[單細胞生物|單細胞]][[原核生物]]，外形類似[[細菌]]，但部分分子序列与[[代謝]]途徑与[[真核生物]]較相近，其[[細胞膜]]為{{le|醚酯|Ether lipid}}所組成，不同於另兩域生物細胞膜主要成分為[[酯類]]{{RefTag|{{cite journal | vauthors = De Rosa M, Gambacorta A, Gliozzi A | title = Structure, biosynthesis, and physicochemical properties of archaebacterial lipids | journal = Microbiological Reviews | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 70–80 | date = March 1986 | pmid = 3083222 | pmc = 373054 | url = http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3083222 | access-date = 2019-07-13 | | | }}}}。早期发现的古菌多為[[嗜極生物]]，后来漸发现古菌普遍存在各種環境中{{RefTag|name=DeLong|{{cite journal | vauthors = DeLong EF | title = Everything in moderation: archaea as 'non-extremophiles' | journal = Current Opinion in Genetics & Development | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 649–54 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 9914204 | doi = 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80032-4 }}}}。
古菌屬於[[單細胞生物|單細胞]][[原核生物]]，外形類似[[細菌]]，但部分分子序列与[[代謝]]途徑与[[真核生物]]較相近，其[[細胞膜]]為{{le|醚酯|Ether lipid}}所組成，不同於另兩域生物細胞膜主要成分為[[酯類]]{{RefTag|{{cite journal | vauthors = De Rosa M, Gambacorta A, Gliozzi A | title = Structure, biosynthesis, and physicochemical properties of archaebacterial lipids | journal = Microbiological Reviews | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 70–80 | date = 1986-03 | pmid = 3083222 | pmc = 373054 | url = http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3083222 | access-date = 2019-07-13 | | | }}}}。早期发现的古菌多為[[嗜極生物]]，后来漸发现古菌普遍存在各種環境中{{RefTag|name=DeLong|{{cite journal | vauthors = DeLong EF | title = Everything in moderation: archaea as 'non-extremophiles' | journal = Current Opinion in Genetics & Development | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 649–54 | date = 1998-12 | pmid = 9914204 | doi = 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80032-4 }}}}。


=== 細菌 ===
=== 細菌 ===
{{main|細菌}}
{{main|細菌}}
細菌也屬於單細胞原核生物，其細胞膜為酯類組成，廣泛分布於不同環境中，外形、營養方式与生長環境都有很高的多樣性。細菌的大小一般為0.5-5微米，少數特例如[[纳米比亚嗜硫珠菌]]{{RefTag|{{cite journal | vauthors = Schulz HN, Jorgensen BB | title = Big bacteria | | journal = Annual Review of Microbiology | volume = 55 | pages = 105–37 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11544351 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.105 }}}}与{{le|費氏刺骨魚菌|Epulopiscium fishelsoni}}可大至0.5毫米而能以肉眼觀察{{RefTag|name=Williams2011|{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Caroline | name-list-format = vanc | year=2011 |title=Who are you calling simple? |journal=New Scientist |volume=211 |issue=2821 |pages=38–41 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61709-0 }}}}，而小型者如[[黴漿菌]]僅有約0.3微米，与大型的[[病毒]]大小相仿{{Reftag|{{cite journal | vauthors = Robertson J, Gomersall M, Gill P | title = Mycoplasma hominis: growth, reproduction, and isolation of small viable cells | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 124 | issue = 2 | pages = 1007–18 | date = November 1975 | pmid = 1102522 | pmc = 235991 }}}}，甚至還有更小的{{le|超微細菌|Ultramicrobacteria}}{{Reftag|{{cite journal | vauthors = Velimirov B | year = 2001 | title = Nanobacteria, Ultramicrobacteria and Starvation Forms: A Search for the Smallest Metabolizing Bacterium | journal = Microbes and Environments | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 67–77 | doi = 10.1264/jsme2.2001.67 }}}}。
細菌也屬於單細胞原核生物，其細胞膜為酯類組成，廣泛分布於不同環境中，外形、營養方式与生長環境都有很高的多樣性。細菌的大小一般為0.5-5微米，少數特例如[[纳米比亚嗜硫珠菌]]{{RefTag|{{cite journal | vauthors = Schulz HN, Jorgensen BB | title = Big bacteria | | journal = Annual Review of Microbiology | volume = 55 | pages = 105–37 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11544351 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.105 }}}}与{{le|費氏刺骨魚菌|Epulopiscium fishelsoni}}可大至0.5毫米而能以肉眼觀察{{RefTag|name=Williams2011|{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Caroline | name-list-format = vanc | year=2011 |title=Who are you calling simple? |journal=New Scientist |volume=211 |issue=2821 |pages=38–41 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61709-0 }}}}，而小型者如[[黴漿菌]]僅有約0.3微米，与大型的[[病毒]]大小相仿{{Reftag|{{cite journal | vauthors = Robertson J, Gomersall M, Gill P | title = Mycoplasma hominis: growth, reproduction, and isolation of small viable cells | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 124 | issue = 2 | pages = 1007–18 | date = 1975-11 | pmid = 1102522 | pmc = 235991 }}}}，甚至還有更小的{{le|超微細菌|Ultramicrobacteria}}{{Reftag|{{cite journal | vauthors = Velimirov B | year = 2001 | title = Nanobacteria, Ultramicrobacteria and Starvation Forms: A Search for the Smallest Metabolizing Bacterium | journal = Microbes and Environments | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 67–77 | doi = 10.1264/jsme2.2001.67 }}}}。


=== 真核生物 ===
=== 真核生物 ===
{{main|真核生物}}
{{main|真核生物}}
真核生物具有[[細胞核]]以及多種膜結構組成的[[內膜系統]]，包括[[動物]]、[[植物]]、[[真菌]]等{{Reftag|name="Woese1990"|{{Cite journal | vauthors=Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M | title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576 | accessdate=11 February 2010 | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume=87 | issue=12 | pages=4576–9 | year=1990 | pmid=2112744 | doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 | pmc=54159 | bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W | | | }}}}。2005年，{{le|国际原生生物学家协会|International Society of Protistologists}}將真核生物分為六个超类群（supergroups），包括[[後鞭毛生物]]、[[古蟲界]]、[[變形蟲界]]、[[囊泡藻界]]、[[有孔蟲界]]与[[原始色素體生物]]{{RefTag|{{cite journal |vauthors=Adl SM, ((Simpson AGB)), Farmer MA, Andersen RA, Anderson OR, Barta JR, Bowser SS, Brugerolle G, Fensome RA, Fredericq S, James TY, Karpov S, Kugrens P, Krug J, Lane CE, Lewis LA, Lodge J, Lynn DH, Mann DG, Mccourt RM, Mendoza L, Moestrup Ø, Mozley-Standridge SE, Nerad TA, Shearer CA, Smirnov AV, Spiegel FW, Taylor MF|displayauthors=6 |title=The new higher-level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2005 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=399–451 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x |pmid=16248873}}}}{{RefTag|[http://comenius.susqu.edu/bi/202/Taxa.htm Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica, (2010) "Taxa of Life."] Retrieved 09-03-2011.}}，但隨即有学者質疑囊泡藻界並非[[單系群]]，並有後續研究將其拆分{{Reftag|{{cite journal |last=Harper |first=J. T. |last2=Waanders |first2=E. |last3=Keeling |first3=P. J. |year=2005 |title=On the monophyly of chromalveolates using a six-protein phylogeny of eukaryotes |journal=Nt. J. System. Evol. Microbiol. |volume=55 |issue=Pt 1 |pmid=15653923 |pages=487–496 |url=http://www.botany.ubc.ca/keeling/PDF/05chromalvJSEM.pdf |lastauthoramp=yes |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.63216-0 ||||access-date=2019-07-13 }}}}{{RefTag|name="parfrey"|{{cite journal |last=Parfrey |first=Laura W. |last2=Barbero |first2=Erika |last3=Lasser |first3=Elyse |last4=Dunthorn |first4=Micah |year=2006 |last5=Bhattacharya |first5=Debashish |last6=Patterson |first6=David J. |last7=Katz |first7=Laura A. |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Evaluating support for the current classification of eukaryotic diversity |journal=PLoS Genetics |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=e220 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220 |pmid=17194223 |pmc=1713255}}}}。近年來持續有許多真核生物的分类理論被提出{{RefTag|name="Burki2007"|{{cite journal |last=Burki |first=Fabien |last2=Shalchian-Tabrizi |first2=Kamran |last3=Minge |first3=Marianne |last4=Skjæveland |first4=Åsmund |last5=Nikolaev |first5=Sergey I. |last6=Jakobsen |first6=Kjetill S. |last7=Pawlowski |first7=Jan|lastauthoramp=yes |editor1-last=Butler |year=2007 |editor1-first=Geraldine |title=Phylogenomics reshuffles the eukaryotic supergroups |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=e790 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000790 |pmid=17726520 |pmc=1949142 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..790B}}}}{{RefTag|name=|{{cite journal |last=Kim |first=E. |last2=Graham |first2=L. E. |year=2008 |title=EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e2621 |editor1-last=Redfield |editor1-first=Rosemary Jeanne |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002621 |pmid=18612431 |pmc=2440802 |lastauthoramp=yes |last3=Redfield |first3=Rosemary Jeanne |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2621K |}}}}。
真核生物具有[[細胞核]]以及多種膜結構組成的[[內膜系統]]，包括[[動物]]、[[植物]]、[[真菌]]等{{Reftag|name="Woese1990"|{{Cite journal | vauthors=Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M | title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576 | accessdate=2010-02-11 | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume=87 | issue=12 | pages=4576–9 | year=1990 | pmid=2112744 | doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 | pmc=54159 | bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W | | | }}}}。2005年，{{le|国际原生生物学家协会|International Society of Protistologists}}將真核生物分為六个超类群（supergroups），包括[[後鞭毛生物]]、[[古蟲界]]、[[變形蟲界]]、[[囊泡藻界]]、[[有孔蟲界]]与[[原始色素體生物]]{{RefTag|{{cite journal |vauthors=Adl SM, ((Simpson AGB)), Farmer MA, Andersen RA, Anderson OR, Barta JR, Bowser SS, Brugerolle G, Fensome RA, Fredericq S, James TY, Karpov S, Kugrens P, Krug J, Lane CE, Lewis LA, Lodge J, Lynn DH, Mann DG, Mccourt RM, Mendoza L, Moestrup Ø, Mozley-Standridge SE, Nerad TA, Shearer CA, Smirnov AV, Spiegel FW, Taylor MF|displayauthors=6 |title=The new higher-level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2005 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=399–451 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x |pmid=16248873}}}}{{RefTag|[http://comenius.susqu.edu/bi/202/Taxa.htm Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica, (2010) "Taxa of Life."] Retrieved 09-03-2011.}}，但隨即有学者質疑囊泡藻界並非[[單系群]]，並有後續研究將其拆分{{Reftag|{{cite journal |last=Harper |first=J. T. |last2=Waanders |first2=E. |last3=Keeling |first3=P. J. |year=2005 |title=On the monophyly of chromalveolates using a six-protein phylogeny of eukaryotes |journal=Nt. J. System. Evol. Microbiol. |volume=55 |issue=Pt 1 |pmid=15653923 |pages=487–496 |url=http://www.botany.ubc.ca/keeling/PDF/05chromalvJSEM.pdf |lastauthoramp=yes |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.63216-0 ||||access-date=2019-07-13 }}}}{{RefTag|name="parfrey"|{{cite journal |last=Parfrey |first=Laura W. |last2=Barbero |first2=Erika |last3=Lasser |first3=Elyse |last4=Dunthorn |first4=Micah |year=2006 |last5=Bhattacharya |first5=Debashish |last6=Patterson |first6=David J. |last7=Katz |first7=Laura A. |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Evaluating support for the current classification of eukaryotic diversity |journal=PLoS Genetics |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=e220 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220 |pmid=17194223 |pmc=1713255}}}}。近年來持續有許多真核生物的分类理論被提出{{RefTag|name="Burki2007"|{{cite journal |last=Burki |first=Fabien |last2=Shalchian-Tabrizi |first2=Kamran |last3=Minge |first3=Marianne |last4=Skjæveland |first4=Åsmund |last5=Nikolaev |first5=Sergey I. |last6=Jakobsen |first6=Kjetill S. |last7=Pawlowski |first7=Jan|lastauthoramp=yes |editor1-last=Butler |year=2007 |editor1-first=Geraldine |title=Phylogenomics reshuffles the eukaryotic supergroups |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=e790 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000790 |pmid=17726520 |pmc=1949142 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..790B}}}}{{RefTag|name=|{{cite journal |last=Kim |first=E. |last2=Graham |first2=L. E. |year=2008 |title=EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e2621 |editor1-last=Redfield |editor1-first=Rosemary Jeanne |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002621 |pmid=18612431 |pmc=2440802 |lastauthoramp=yes |last3=Redfield |first3=Rosemary Jeanne |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2621K |}}}}。


== 分类 ==
== 分类 ==
2002年，英国生物学家[[湯瑪斯·卡弗利爾-史密斯]]提出了[[新壁總域]]的概念，即古菌与真核生物共同組成一演化支，為細菌中[[放線菌門]]的[[姊妹群]]{{RefTag|name=Cavalier-Smith T|{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith T |title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa |journal=Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. |volume=52 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=297–354 |pmid=11931142 |doi= |url=http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11931142 |date=March 2002 |access-date=2013-07-13 |||}}}}。後續分子種系發生學的研究亦支持古菌与真核生物的親緣关系較与細菌的親緣关系近{{RefTag|{{cite journal |vauthors=Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P |title=Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5765 |pages=1283–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16513982 |doi=10.1126/science.1123061 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1283C |url=http://bioinformatics.bio.uu.nl/pdf/Ciccarelli.s06-311.pdf |access-date=2019-07-13 |||}}}}。
2002年，英国生物学家[[湯瑪斯·卡弗利爾-史密斯]]提出了[[新壁總域]]的概念，即古菌与真核生物共同組成一演化支，為細菌中[[放線菌門]]的[[姊妹群]]{{RefTag|name=Cavalier-Smith T|{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith T |title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa |journal=Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. |volume=52 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=297–354 |pmid=11931142 |doi= |url=http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11931142 |date=2002-03 |access-date=2013-07-13 |||}}}}。後續分子種系發生學的研究亦支持古菌与真核生物的親緣关系較与細菌的親緣关系近{{RefTag|{{cite journal |vauthors=Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P |title=Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5765 |pages=1283–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16513982 |doi=10.1126/science.1123061 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1283C |url=http://bioinformatics.bio.uu.nl/pdf/Ciccarelli.s06-311.pdf |access-date=2019-07-13 |||}}}}。


== 其他分类系統 ==
== 其他分类系統 ==
[[File:Two domain tree.png|缩略图|[[三域系統]]（上）与{{le|泉古菌假说|Eocyte hypothesis}}（下）]]
[[File:Two domain tree.png|缩略图|[[三域系統]]（上）与{{le|泉古菌假说|Eocyte hypothesis}}（下）]]
除了[[三域系統]]外，其他較常用的分类系統還包括：
除了[[三域系統]]外，其他較常用的分类系統還包括：
* {{link-en|兩域系統|Two-empire system}}：將生物分成[[原核生物]]与[[真核生物]]兩群，其中[[原核生物]]有[[原核生物界]]，[[真核生物]]有[[原生生物界]]、[[菌物界]]、[[植物界]]、[[動物界]]等{{RefTag|name="Mayr1998"|{{Cite journal | author = Mayr, Ernst | title = Two empires or three? | url = http://www.pnas.org/content/95/17/9720.full | accessdate = 5 September 2011 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume = 95 | issue = 17 | pages = 9720–9723 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9707542 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.95.17.9720 | pmc = 33883 | bibcode = 1998PNAS...95.9720 | | | }}}}{{RefTag|{{Cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=T. ||year=2004 |title=Only six kingdoms of life |journal=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B |volume=271 |pages=1251–62 |url=http://www.cladocera.de/protozoa/cavalier-smith_2004_prs.pdf |accessdate=2010-04-29 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2705 |pmid=15306349 |pmc=1691724 |issue=1545 |||}}}}。
* {{link-en|兩域系統|Two-empire system}}：將生物分成[[原核生物]]与[[真核生物]]兩群，其中[[原核生物]]有[[原核生物界]]，[[真核生物]]有[[原生生物界]]、[[菌物界]]、[[植物界]]、[[動物界]]等{{RefTag|name="Mayr1998"|{{Cite journal | author = Mayr, Ernst | title = Two empires or three? | url = http://www.pnas.org/content/95/17/9720.full | accessdate = 2011-09-05 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume = 95 | issue = 17 | pages = 9720–9723 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9707542 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.95.17.9720 | pmc = 33883 | bibcode = 1998PNAS...95.9720 | | | }}}}{{RefTag|{{Cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=T. ||year=2004 |title=Only six kingdoms of life |journal=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B |volume=271 |pages=1251–62 |url=http://www.cladocera.de/protozoa/cavalier-smith_2004_prs.pdf |accessdate=2010-04-29 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2705 |pmid=15306349 |pmc=1691724 |issue=1545 |||}}}}。
* {{le|泉古菌假说|Eocyte hypothesis}}：將生物分成兩域，古菌与真核生物共組成一域，由美国生物学家{{le|詹姆斯·A·雷克|James A. Lake}}於1984年提出{{RefTag|name=Archibald|{{cite journal |first1=John M. |last1=Archibald |title=The eocyte hypothesis and the origin of eukaryotic cells |journal=PNAS |volume=105 |issue=51 |pages=20049–20050 |date=23 December 2008 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0811118106|pmid=19091952 |pmc=2629348 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10520049A }}}}{{RefTag|name=Lake|{{cite journal |first1=James A. |last1= Lake |first2=Eric |last2=Henderson |first3=Melanie |last3=Oakes |first4=Michael W. |last4=Clark |title=Eocytes: A new ribosome structure indicates a kingdom with a close relationship to eukaryotes |journal=PNAS |volume=81 |pages=3786–3790 |date=June 1984 |doi=10.1073/pnas.81.12.3786 |pmid=6587394 |issue=12 |pmc=345305|bibcode=1984PNAS...81.3786L }}}}。
* {{le|泉古菌假说|Eocyte hypothesis}}：將生物分成兩域，古菌与真核生物共組成一域，由美国生物学家{{le|詹姆斯·A·雷克|James A. Lake}}於1984年提出{{RefTag|name=Archibald|{{cite journal |first1=John M. |last1=Archibald |title=The eocyte hypothesis and the origin of eukaryotic cells |journal=PNAS |volume=105 |issue=51 |pages=20049–20050 |date=2008-12-23 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0811118106|pmid=19091952 |pmc=2629348 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10520049A }}}}{{RefTag|name=Lake|{{cite journal |first1=James A. |last1= Lake |first2=Eric |last2=Henderson |first3=Melanie |last3=Oakes |first4=Michael W. |last4=Clark |title=Eocytes: A new ribosome structure indicates a kingdom with a close relationship to eukaryotes |journal=PNAS |volume=81 |pages=3786–3790 |date=1984-06 |doi=10.1073/pnas.81.12.3786 |pmid=6587394 |issue=12 |pmc=345305|bibcode=1984PNAS...81.3786L }}}}。
* 三域系統中並未包含[[病毒]]。2011年，有学者认为[[核质巨DNA病毒]]可能是生物分类的第四個域，此觀點進一步在2012年獲得支持{{RefTag|Nasir, Arshan; Kim, Kyung Mo; and Caetano-Anolles, Gustavo, "Giant viruses coexisted with the cellular ancestors and represent a distinct supergroup along with superkingdoms Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya." BMC Evol Biol. 2012; 12: 156. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3570343/ Published online] 2012 August 24. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-156}}。同年，[[塞爾維亞]]生物学家史蒂芬·盧基塔（Stefan Luketa）提出了五域的分类系統，在三域之外加入病毒（無細胞但有核酸的生命體）与[[普里昂蛋白]]（無細胞与核酸的生命體）兩域{{RefTag|{{Cite journal|last=Luketa S.|year=2012|title=New views on the megaclassification of life|url=http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf|journal=Protistology|volume=7|issue=4|pages=218–237|access-date=2019-07-13|||}}}}。
* 三域系統中並未包含[[病毒]]。2011年，有学者认为[[核质巨DNA病毒]]可能是生物分类的第四個域，此觀點進一步在2012年獲得支持{{RefTag|Nasir, Arshan; Kim, Kyung Mo; and Caetano-Anolles, Gustavo, "Giant viruses coexisted with the cellular ancestors and represent a distinct supergroup along with superkingdoms Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya." BMC Evol Biol. 2012; 12: 156. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3570343/ Published online] 2012 August 24. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-156}}。同年，[[塞爾維亞]]生物学家史蒂芬·盧基塔（Stefan Luketa）提出了五域的分类系統，在三域之外加入病毒（無細胞但有核酸的生命體）与[[普里昂蛋白]]（無細胞与核酸的生命體）兩域{{RefTag|{{Cite journal|last=Luketa S.|year=2012|title=New views on the megaclassification of life|url=http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf|journal=Protistology|volume=7|issue=4|pages=218–237|access-date=2019-07-13|||}}}}。
* 在[[中国大百科全書]]引用過中国生物學界的另一种三域系統，把病毒等列生物和成立專屬的總界，稱為無細胞結構總界，与[[多細胞生物]](包括[[動物]]`[[植物]]`[[真菌]])和[[單細胞生物]]（包括[[原生生物]]和[[原核生物]]），各成為一個總界共有三個總界（域）和六個界別。<ref>中国大百科全書 生物學分冊</ref>
* 在[[中国大百科全書]]引用過中国生物學界的另一种三域系統，把病毒等列生物和成立專屬的總界，稱為無細胞結構總界，与[[多細胞生物]](包括[[動物]]`[[植物]]`[[真菌]])和[[單細胞生物]]（包括[[原生生物]]和[[原核生物]]），各成為一個總界共有三個總界（域）和六個界別。<ref>中国大百科全書 生物學分冊</ref>
取自“https://www.qiuwenbaike.cn/wiki/域（生物）”