國際音標:修订间差异

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'''國際音標'''({{lang-en|'''I'''nternational '''P'''honetic '''A'''lphabet}},[[縮寫]]:{{lang|en|IPA}}{{efn|缩写「IPA」严格地讲是指「[[国际语音学协会]]」('''I'''nternational '''P'''honetic '''A'''ssociation)。不过,这缩写现在也约定俗成地用于指称音标本身('''I'''nternational '''P'''honetic '''A'''lphabet)。通常可以根据上下文消除这两种歧义。<ref>Laver, ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 561</ref>}}),又稱'''萬國音標''',是一种以[[拉丁字母]]為基礎的[[標音]]系統,19世纪末由[[國際語音學學會]]設計以作為口語發音的標準表记形式<ref name="IPA Handbook" />。國際音標的使用者包括[[語言學]]研究者、[[人工語言]]創造者、外语学生和教師、翻译者、词典编纂者、歌手等等<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |date=1989 |isbn=1877761508 |url=http://www.amazon.com/International-Phonetic-Alphabet-Singers-Language/dp/1877761508 |access-date=2007-08-01 |||}}</ref>。
'''國際音標'''({{lang-en|'''I'''nternational '''P'''honetic '''A'''lphabet}},[[縮寫]]:{{lang|en|IPA}}{{efn|缩写「IPA」严格地讲是指「[[国际语音学协会]]」('''I'''nternational '''P'''honetic '''A'''ssociation)。不过,这缩写现在也约定俗成地用于指称音标本身('''I'''nternational '''P'''honetic '''A'''lphabet)。通常可以根据上下文消除这两种歧义。<ref>Laver, ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 561</ref>}}),又稱'''萬國音標''',是一种以[[拉丁字母]]為基礎的[[標音]]系統,19世纪末由[[國際語音學學會]]設計以作為口語發音的標準表记形式<ref name="IPA Handbook" />。國際音標的使用者包括[[語言學]]研究者、[[人工語言]]創造者、外语学生和教師、翻译者、词典编纂者、歌手等等<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |date=1989 |isbn=1877761508 |url=http://www.amazon.com/International-Phonetic-Alphabet-Singers-Language/dp/1877761508 |access-date=2007-08-01 |||}}</ref>。


{{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}}
{{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}}
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此外還有一些較少見的轉寫:
此外還有一些較少見的轉寫:
* 雙斜線 //…//、[[豎線]] |…|、雙豎線 ||…||,以及花括號 {...} 可以用在一個單詞周圍,以表示比音位更抽象的底層結構。相關例子可參見[[詞法音位學]]。
* 雙斜線 //…//、[[豎線]] |…|、雙豎線 ||…||,以及花括號 {...} 可以用在一個單詞周圍,以表示比音位更抽象的底層結構。相關例子可參見[[詞法音位學]]。
* 雙方括號 {{IPA|⟦...⟧}} 用於超精確記音。括號中字母的音值皆是國際音標中定義的基本音值。例如,{{IPA|⟦a⟧}} 指[[開前不圓唇元音|開前元音]],而不是其他接近、也能以{{IPA|[a]}}記錄但稍有不同的音值(如開央元音)。因此,常用且易讀的兩個元音{{angbr IPA|[e]}}和{{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}}實際上可以精確地寫作{{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}}和{{IPA|⟦e⟧}};{{angbr IPA|[ð]}}也可以更精確地描述為{{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Phonology of Danish|url=https://archive.org/details/phonologydanisht00basb|author=Hans Basboll |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/phonologydanisht00basb/page/45 45], 59|ISBN=978-0198242680|year=2005}}</ref>。
* 雙方括號 {{IPA|⟦...⟧}} 用於超精確記音。括號中字母的音值皆是國際音標中定義的基本音值。例如,{{IPA|⟦a⟧}} 指[[開前不圓唇元音|開前元音]],而不是其他接近、也能以{{IPA|[a]}}記錄但稍有不同的音值(如開央元音)。因此,常用且易讀的兩個元音{{angbr IPA|[e]}}和{{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}}實際上可以精確地寫作{{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}}和{{IPA|⟦e⟧}};{{angbr IPA|[ð]}}也可以更精確地描述為{{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Phonology of Danish||author=Hans Basboll |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/phonologydanisht00basb/page/45 45], 59|ISBN=978-0198242680|year=2005}}</ref>。
* 尖括號用於表示括號中的字母代表該語言的原始拼寫(或是非拉丁字母文字的準確轉譯),而不見得是國際音標,如{{angbr IPA|pin}}和{{angbr IPA|spin}},兩者都不完全代表實際音值。作為這種用途時,以斜體書寫可能是更常見的表達方式,但若僅有一兩個字母標為斜體,可能會造成讀者難以辨識{{efn|記音中使用的正確尖括號是數學符號「⟨…⟩」(U+27E8和U+27E9),但較舊的字體可能不支援此符號。常用的替代括號有「<...>」(U+2039和U+203A)和「<...>」(U+003C和U+003E)。}}。
* 尖括號用於表示括號中的字母代表該語言的原始拼寫(或是非拉丁字母文字的準確轉譯),而不見得是國際音標,如{{angbr IPA|pin}}和{{angbr IPA|spin}},兩者都不完全代表實際音值。作為這種用途時,以斜體書寫可能是更常見的表達方式,但若僅有一兩個字母標為斜體,可能會造成讀者難以辨識{{efn|記音中使用的正確尖括號是數學符號「⟨…⟩」(U+27E8和U+27E9),但較舊的字體可能不支援此符號。常用的替代括號有「<...>」(U+2039和U+203A)和「<...>」(U+003C和U+003E)。}}。
* {花括號} 用於記錄[[韵律 (语言学)|韵律]]。相關例子可參見[[國際音標擴展]]系統。
* {花括號} 用於記錄[[韵律 (语言学)|韵律]]。相關例子可參見[[國際音標擴展]]系統。
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==== 英語 ====
==== 英語 ====
許多英國的英語字典,包括《[[牛津英語詞典]]》,以及《[[牛津高階英語辭典]]》、《{{tsl|en|Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary|劍橋高階英語辭典}}》等{{tsl|en|Monolingual learner's dictionary|單語學習者字典|學習者字典}},都使用國際音標為單詞標音<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |accessdate=2007-03-11 |||}}</ref>。然而,為了讓英語讀者更容易適應,大部分美國字典(和部分英國字典)傾向使用[[英语发音重拼法|發音重拼法]]作為標音系統。例如,許多美國字典(如《[[韋伯字典]]》)使用{{angbr|y}}表示IPA的{{IPA|[j]}}、使用{{angbr|sh}}表示IPA的{{IPA|[ʃ]}},這樣的表示法較為接近英語的拼字習慣<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |accessdate=2007-06-04 |work= |||}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0/page/ xxiii]|nopp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0/page/}}<br />详细比对参见[[英语发音重拼法]]</ref>。但在國際音標中,{{IPA|[y]}}相當於-{zh-hans:汉语拼音的“yu”; zh-tw: 注音符號的「ㄩ」; zh-hk:漢語拼音的“yu”}-;{{IPA|[sh]}}中的s和h則是獨立發音的兩個字母,如英語gra{{strong|ssh}}opper。
許多英國的英語字典,包括《[[牛津英語詞典]]》,以及《[[牛津高階英語辭典]]》、《{{tsl|en|Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary|劍橋高階英語辭典}}》等{{tsl|en|Monolingual learner's dictionary|單語學習者字典|學習者字典}},都使用國際音標為單詞標音<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |accessdate=2007-03-11 |||}}</ref>。然而,為了讓英語讀者更容易適應,大部分美國字典(和部分英國字典)傾向使用[[英语发音重拼法|發音重拼法]]作為標音系統。例如,許多美國字典(如《[[韋伯字典]]》)使用{{angbr|y}}表示IPA的{{IPA|[j]}}、使用{{angbr|sh}}表示IPA的{{IPA|[ʃ]}},這樣的表示法較為接近英語的拼字習慣<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |accessdate=2007-06-04 |work= |||}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0/page/ xxiii]|nopp=true|}}<br />详细比对参见[[英语发音重拼法]]</ref>。但在國際音標中,{{IPA|[y]}}相當於-{zh-hans:汉语拼音的“yu”; zh-tw: 注音符號的「ㄩ」; zh-hk:漢語拼音的“yu”}-;{{IPA|[sh]}}中的s和h則是獨立發音的兩個字母,如英語gra{{strong|ssh}}opper。
<!-- This is OR. The IPA can just as easily be used for this. :
<!-- This is OR. The IPA can just as easily be used for this. :
One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single letter for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]] uses {{angbr|ŏ}} for the vowel in ''cot'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/46/C0674600.html (kŏt)] but {{angbr|ô}} for the one in ''caught'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/14/C0171400.html (kôt)].<ref>{{cite web|title=Pronunciation Key|work=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/12.html |year=2000 |publisher=Bartleby.com|accessdate=2006-09-19 }}</ref> Some American speakers [[phonological history of English low back vowels|pronounce these the same way]] (for example, like IPA {{IPA|[ɒ]}} in the [[Boston accent|Boston dialect]]); for those speakers who maintain the distinction, depending on the accent, the vowel in ''cot'' may vary from {{IPA|[ɑ]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}, while the vowel in ''caught'' may vary from {{IPA|[ɔ]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, or may even be a diphthong. Using one letter for the vowel in ''cot'' (instead of having different letters for different pronunciations of the ''o'') enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.
One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single letter for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]] uses {{angbr|ŏ}} for the vowel in ''cot'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/46/C0674600.html (kŏt)] but {{angbr|ô}} for the one in ''caught'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/14/C0171400.html (kôt)].<ref>{{cite web|title=Pronunciation Key|work=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/12.html |year=2000 |publisher=Bartleby.com|accessdate=2006-09-19 }}</ref> Some American speakers [[phonological history of English low back vowels|pronounce these the same way]] (for example, like IPA {{IPA|[ɒ]}} in the [[Boston accent|Boston dialect]]); for those speakers who maintain the distinction, depending on the accent, the vowel in ''cot'' may vary from {{IPA|[ɑ]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}, while the vowel in ''caught'' may vary from {{IPA|[ɔ]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, or may even be a diphthong. Using one letter for the vowel in ''cot'' (instead of having different letters for different pronunciations of the ''o'') enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.
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==== 肺部氣流音 ====
==== 肺部氣流音 ====
{{Main|肺部氣流音}}{{see also|有聲國際音標肺部氣流音表}}
{{Main|肺部氣流音}}{{see also|有聲國際音標肺部氣流音表}}
肺部氣流音是通過阻塞[[聲門]]或[[口腔]]、並同時或隨後從肺部排出空氣而形成的輔音。在國際音標中,超過一半的輔音屬於肺部氣流音。英語和[[現代標準漢語]]中所有輔音都屬於這一類<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|authorlink=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|origyear=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX |edition= 6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}</ref>。
肺部氣流音是通過阻塞[[聲門]]或[[口腔]]、並同時或隨後從肺部排出空氣而形成的輔音。在國際音標中,超過一半的輔音屬於肺部氣流音。英語和[[現代標準漢語]]中所有輔音都屬於這一類<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|authorlink=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|origyear=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX |edition= 6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|}}</ref>。


在肺部氣流音表中,每列代表不同的[[調音方法]](輔音以何種方式產生),每欄則代表不同的[[調音部位]](輔音在口腔中哪個部分產生)。主圖僅包括具有單一發音位置的輔音。{{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}}
在肺部氣流音表中,每列代表不同的[[調音方法]](輔音以何種方式產生),每欄則代表不同的[[調音部位]](輔音在口腔中哪個部分產生)。主圖僅包括具有單一發音位置的輔音。{{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}}
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* 声调符号。分以下两种情况:
* 声调符号。分以下两种情况:
**标调值。以数字标调较国际音标的折线标调更利于书写、排印和识读。在东亚学界,数字调值的1表示最低调,而5表示最高调;但中美洲学界的惯例常常是反过来的,1表示最高调,而5表示最低调。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tone|url=https://archive.org/details/tonecambridgetex00yipm|last=Yip|first=Moira|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-511-07614-2|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tonecambridgetex00yipm/page/19 19]-21}}</ref>
**标调值。以数字标调较国际音标的折线标调更利于书写、排印和识读。在东亚学界,数字调值的1表示最低调,而5表示最高调;但中美洲学界的惯例常常是反过来的,1表示最高调,而5表示最低调。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tone||last=Yip|first=Moira|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-511-07614-2|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tonecambridgetex00yipm/page/19 19]-21}}</ref>
**标调类。由於方言間聲調的差異往往比音段大,比起调值,調名(陰平、陽平……等)更有利於方言間的比較。记音的关注点在于音段而非声调时,也常常用调类的表记。标写调类常见的是用数字(或辅以其他记号),也有使用圈发号的。需要注意的是,即使对同一种语言,不同文献赋予的数字–调类对应关系也时有差异。
**标调类。由於方言間聲調的差異往往比音段大,比起调值,調名(陰平、陽平……等)更有利於方言間的比較。记音的关注点在于音段而非声调时,也常常用调类的表记。标写调类常见的是用数字(或辅以其他记号),也有使用圈发号的。需要注意的是,即使对同一种语言,不同文献赋予的数字–调类对应关系也时有差异。
*塞擦音,如美式音標以{{angbr IPA|ƛ}}代替{{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}}、以{{angbr IPA|č}}代替{{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}。
*塞擦音,如美式音標以{{angbr IPA|ƛ}}代替{{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}}、以{{angbr IPA|č}}代替{{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}。
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由於國際音標的符號數量繁多,大部分的電腦鍵盤無法輸入所有音標。一些網站擁有國際音標的螢幕輸入鍵盤,如[[洛杉磯加利福尼亞大學]]語言學系提供的鍵盤可完整輸入所有國際音標,包括字母、變音符號和其他記號<ref>Online IPA keyboard utilities like [http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA i-chart by the Association] , [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 19 at GitHub] , [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ TypeIt.org] , and [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard at GitHub]</ref>。
由於國際音標的符號數量繁多,大部分的電腦鍵盤無法輸入所有音標。一些網站擁有國際音標的螢幕輸入鍵盤,如[[洛杉磯加利福尼亞大學]]語言學系提供的鍵盤可完整輸入所有國際音標,包括字母、變音符號和其他記號<ref>Online IPA keyboard utilities like [http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA i-chart by the Association] , [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 19 at GitHub] , [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ TypeIt.org] , and [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard at GitHub]</ref>。


2019年4月,[[Google]]的多語言行動裝置[[輸入法]]程式[[Gboard]]為[[Android]]和[[iOS]]系統新增了IPA鍵盤<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/save/https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|access-date=2019-09-04|||}}</ref>;此外亦有其他鍵盤可供行動裝置選擇<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.edwardgreve.ipakeyboard&hl=en_US|title=IPA Keyboard|access-date=2019-09-04|||}}</ref>。
2019年4月,[[Google]]的多語言行動裝置[[輸入法]]程式[[Gboard]]為[[Android]]和[[iOS]]系統新增了IPA鍵盤<ref>{{Cite web||title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|access-date=2019-09-04|||}}</ref>;此外亦有其他鍵盤可供行動裝置選擇<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.edwardgreve.ipakeyboard&hl=en_US|title=IPA Keyboard|access-date=2019-09-04|||}}</ref>。


== 註解 ==
== 註解 ==
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* {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868}}
* {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868}}
* {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb).
* {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb).
* {{Cite book|last=Jones |first=Daniel|authorlink=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English pronouncing dictionary |year=1988| edition= revised 14th |publisher=Dent |location=London |oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani }}
* {{Cite book|last=Jones |first=Daniel|authorlink=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English pronouncing dictionary |year=1988| edition= revised 14th |publisher=Dent |location=London |oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2 |}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Ladefoged |date=1990-09 |title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet |journal=Language |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=550–552 |doi=10.2307/414611 |jstor=414611}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Ladefoged |date=1990-09 |title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet |journal=Language |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=550–552 |doi=10.2307/414611 |jstor=414611}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Morris Hale |date=1988-09 |title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet |journal=Language |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=577–582 |doi=10.2307/414533 |jstor=414533}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Morris Hale |date=1988-09 |title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet |journal=Language |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=577–582 |doi=10.2307/414533 |jstor=414533}}
* {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb).
* {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb).
* {{Cite book|last=Pullum |first=Geoffrey K. |authorlink=Geoffrey Pullum |author2=William A. Ladusaw |title={{tsl|en|Phonetic Symbol Guide|}} |year=1986 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-68532-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Pullum |first=Geoffrey K. |authorlink=Geoffrey Pullum |author2=William A. Ladusaw |title={{tsl|en|Phonetic Symbol Guide|}} |year=1986 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-68532-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Skinner |first=Edith |author2=Timothy Monich |author3=Lilene Mansell |title=Speak with Distinction |url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin |location=New York |publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers |year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Skinner |first=Edith |author2=Timothy Monich |author3=Lilene Mansell |title=Speak with Distinction ||location=New York |publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers |year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cenage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=1-4282-6392-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language||date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cenage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=1-4282-6392-6}}
* {{citation|last=Asu|first=Eva Liina|last2=Teras|first2=Pire|year=2009|title=Estonian|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=39|issue=3|pages=367–372|doi=10.1017/s002510030999017x|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/629DFE570A2E6606733B29A0145B4512/S002510030999017Xa.pdf/estonian.pdf|accessdate=2019-09-08|||}}
* {{citation|last=Asu|first=Eva Liina|last2=Teras|first2=Pire|year=2009|title=Estonian|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=39|issue=3|pages=367–372|doi=10.1017/s002510030999017x|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/629DFE570A2E6606733B29A0145B4512/S002510030999017Xa.pdf/estonian.pdf|accessdate=2019-09-08|||}}
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