顺治帝：修订间差异

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[[File:Examination hall, Peking.jpg|alt=A black-and-white picture of a stone-paved alley going from bottom right to top left leading to a three-roofed gate and bordered on the right by a line up of small roofed cubicles open on one side.|缩略图|左|北京的科举号房。大清为增强在汉人精英心中的正统性，在1644年刚攻占北京之时，便重建了[[科举]]考试。]]
[[File:Examination hall, Peking.jpg|alt=A black-and-white picture of a stone-paved alley going from bottom right to top left leading to a three-roofed gate and bordered on the right by a line up of small roofed cubicles open on one side.|缩略图|左|北京的科举号房。大清为增强在汉人精英心中的正统性，在1644年刚攻占北京之时，便重建了[[科举]]考试。]]
多尔衮进入大清新首都后的最初的一个命令是，将北京北部全部腾出，然后把它分给[[八旗|旗人]]。两黄旗分得荣耀的宫殿北部，其次，东部为两白旗，西部为两红旗，南部为两蓝旗<ref>参见{{harvnb|Naquin|2000|p=356}}和{{Harvnb|Elliott|2001}}[http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA1&dq=the+manchu+way#PRA1-PA103,M1 ，第103页]地图。</ref>。八旗的此种布局，是为了使京城同满洲在征服中原前的故乡保持一致。此种布局“按照罗盘的指针指向，给颜色不同的旗人分配在一个固定的地理位置<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxnam|1975|p=170}}</ref>。”尽管大清为了加快过渡而减免税收，推迟大型建筑建造计划。但到了1648年，新来的旗人与共同生活的汉人百姓间仍有敌意<ref>{{harvnb|Naquin|2000|pp=289–91}}。</ref>。而首都以外的农业用地则全部被清军圈占<ref name="Naquin 291">{{harvnb|Naquin|2000|p=291}}。</ref>。昔日的地主，现在却成了给外居旗人地主支付租金的佃户<ref name="Naquin 291"/>。这种土地用途的转变导致了“数十年的中断和苦难<ref name="Naquin 291"/>。”
多尔衮进入大清新首都后的最初的一个命令是，将北京北部全部腾出，然后把它分给[[八旗|旗人]]。两黄旗分得荣耀的宫殿北部，其次，东部为两白旗，西部为两红旗，南部为两蓝旗<ref>参见{{harvnb|Naquin|2000|p=356}}和{{Harvnb|Elliott|2001}}，第103页地图。</ref>。八旗的此种布局，是为了使京城同满洲在征服中原前的故乡保持一致。此种布局“按照罗盘的指针指向，给颜色不同的旗人分配在一个固定的地理位置<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxnam|1975|p=170}}</ref>。”尽管大清为了加快过渡而减免税收，推迟大型建筑建造计划。但到了1648年，新来的旗人与共同生活的汉人百姓间仍有敌意<ref>{{harvnb|Naquin|2000|pp=289–91}}。</ref>。而首都以外的农业用地则全部被清军圈占<ref name="Naquin 291">{{harvnb|Naquin|2000|p=291}}。</ref>。昔日的地主，现在却成了给外居旗人地主支付租金的佃户<ref name="Naquin 291"/>。这种土地用途的转变导致了“数十年的中断和苦难<ref name="Naquin 291"/>。”


在1646年，多尔衮还下令重建选任政府官员的[[科举]]考试。从那时起，他们效仿大明，每三年定期举行一次科举。同年，大清统治下的第一次殿试举行，大多数报考者为北方汉人，他们被提问如何使满[[汉人|汉]]同心合志<ref>{{harvnb|Elman|2002|p=389}}。</ref>。1649年，考试询问“联满汉为一体，使之同心合力，欢然无间，何道而可<ref>引自{{harvnb|Elman|2002|pp=389–90}}。</ref>？”在1660年确定减少中额前，顺治朝下每届会试的考中人数的平均为大清最高（“得到了汉人更多的支持”）<ref>{{harvnb|Man-Cheong|2004|p=7}}，表1.1（清朝每届会试中额）；{{harvnb|Wakeman|1985|p=954}}（高中额的原因）；{{harvnb|Elman|2001|p=169}}（1660年减少中额）。</ref>。
在1646年，多尔衮还下令重建选任政府官员的[[科举]]考试。从那时起，他们效仿大明，每三年定期举行一次科举。同年，大清统治下的第一次殿试举行，大多数报考者为北方汉人，他们被提问如何使满[[汉人|汉]]同心合志<ref>{{harvnb|Elman|2002|p=389}}。</ref>。1649年，考试询问“联满汉为一体，使之同心合力，欢然无间，何道而可<ref>引自{{harvnb|Elman|2002|pp=389–90}}。</ref>？”在1660年确定减少中额前，顺治朝下每届会试的考中人数的平均为大清最高（“得到了汉人更多的支持”）<ref>{{harvnb|Man-Cheong|2004|p=7}}，表1.1（清朝每届会试中额）；{{harvnb|Wakeman|1985|p=954}}（高中额的原因）；{{harvnb|Elman|2001|p=169}}（1660年减少中额）。</ref>。
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=== 大清与中国的概念 ===
=== 大清与中国的概念 ===
清朝皇帝自順治帝开始以「中國」自居，並且在對外条约和外交文件中称清为“中国”<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006]，第7页。</ref>。1689年，也就是康熙二十八年，中俄[[尼布楚条约]]上第一次在国际法的层面上确立了“中国”的概念。
清朝皇帝自順治帝开始以「中國」自居，並且在對外条约和外交文件中称清为“中国”<ref>[https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006]，第7页。</ref>。1689年，也就是康熙二十八年，中俄[[尼布楚条约]]上第一次在国际法的层面上确立了“中国”的概念。


== 驾崩和继承 ==
== 驾崩和继承 ==
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由于朝廷没有明确宣布順治帝的死因，很快便流言四起。坊间传言福临其实未死，而是因为对爱妃之死过于悲痛或是四位获任为辅政大臣的满洲贵族发动了[[政变]]，他退位隐居[[佛教]]寺院，匿名为[[比丘|僧]]<ref>{{harvnb|Spence|2002|p=125}}。</ref>。因为順治帝于17世纪50年代成了[[汉传佛教|佛教]][[禅宗]]的狂热追随者，甚至让[[比丘|僧人]]进入皇宫，这些流言似乎不那么令人难以置信<ref>{{harvnb|Fang|1943a|p=258}}（皇帝1657年成为一名虔诚的佛教徒）；{{harvnb|Dennerline|2002|p=118}}（皇帝1659年献身于佛教；僧人在宫中生活）。</ref>。中国现代历史学家认为福临出家之谜是清初三大疑案之一<ref>参见[[孟森]]，《清初三大疑案》（1935）。另两大疑案分别是[[孝庄皇太后|孝庄文皇后]]下嫁[[多尔衮]]之谜和[[雍正帝]]胤禛篡夺其父[[康熙帝]]玄烨皇位之谜。</ref>。但一位僧人记录说1661年2月初皇帝因感染天花而健康严重受损，而在皇帝的葬礼上有[[贞妃|一名妃子]]和一名侍卫为其殉葬，由此来看福临之死应该並非假象<ref>{{harvnb|Oxnam|1975|p=205}}（僧人的日记，援引自中国历史学家[[孟森]]的一项旧研究）；{{harvnb|Spence|2002|p=125}}（两名殉葬者）。</ref>。
由于朝廷没有明确宣布順治帝的死因，很快便流言四起。坊间传言福临其实未死，而是因为对爱妃之死过于悲痛或是四位获任为辅政大臣的满洲贵族发动了[[政变]]，他退位隐居[[佛教]]寺院，匿名为[[比丘|僧]]<ref>{{harvnb|Spence|2002|p=125}}。</ref>。因为順治帝于17世纪50年代成了[[汉传佛教|佛教]][[禅宗]]的狂热追随者，甚至让[[比丘|僧人]]进入皇宫，这些流言似乎不那么令人难以置信<ref>{{harvnb|Fang|1943a|p=258}}（皇帝1657年成为一名虔诚的佛教徒）；{{harvnb|Dennerline|2002|p=118}}（皇帝1659年献身于佛教；僧人在宫中生活）。</ref>。中国现代历史学家认为福临出家之谜是清初三大疑案之一<ref>参见[[孟森]]，《清初三大疑案》（1935）。另两大疑案分别是[[孝庄皇太后|孝庄文皇后]]下嫁[[多尔衮]]之谜和[[雍正帝]]胤禛篡夺其父[[康熙帝]]玄烨皇位之谜。</ref>。但一位僧人记录说1661年2月初皇帝因感染天花而健康严重受损，而在皇帝的葬礼上有[[贞妃|一名妃子]]和一名侍卫为其殉葬，由此来看福临之死应该並非假象<ref>{{harvnb|Oxnam|1975|p=205}}（僧人的日记，援引自中国历史学家[[孟森]]的一项旧研究）；{{harvnb|Spence|2002|p=125}}（两名殉葬者）。</ref>。


福临的遗体被安放在紫禁城，受到为时27天的哀悼，1661年3月3日，一支规模宏大的行进列队将福临的遗体运送至[[景山公园|景山]]（紫禁城北部的一个小丘），之后大量贵重物品在葬礼上被烧掉<ref>{{harvnb|Standaert|2008|pp=73–74}}。</ref>。距离葬礼仅两年后的1663年，福临的遗体被运到他最后的安息之地<ref>{{harvnb|Standaert|2008|p=75}}。</ref>。与当时的满洲习俗相同，福临的遗体在火化后安葬<ref>{{harvnb|Elliott|2001|p=477}}，注释122（列举几种研究和一手文献）。与此类似，[[皇太极]]和福临的两个皇后都在死后火葬（{{harvnb|Elliott|2001|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA1&dq=the+manchu+way#PRA1-PA264,M1 264]}}）。</ref>。他的骨灰安葬在北京东北方的昌瑞山，后来通常称为[[清东陵]]<ref name="Fang 258">{{harvnb|Fang|1943a|p=258}}。</ref>。他的陵墓[[清孝陵|孝陵]]是建在那里的第一座陵墓<ref name="Fang 258"/>。
福临的遗体被安放在紫禁城，受到为时27天的哀悼，1661年3月3日，一支规模宏大的行进列队将福临的遗体运送至[[景山公园|景山]]（紫禁城北部的一个小丘），之后大量贵重物品在葬礼上被烧掉<ref>{{harvnb|Standaert|2008|pp=73–74}}。</ref>。距离葬礼仅两年后的1663年，福临的遗体被运到他最后的安息之地<ref>{{harvnb|Standaert|2008|p=75}}。</ref>。与当时的满洲习俗相同，福临的遗体在火化后安葬<ref>{{harvnb|Elliott|2001|p=477}}，注释122（列举几种研究和一手文献）。与此类似，[[皇太极]]和福临的两个皇后都在死后火葬（{{harvnb|Elliott|2001|p=264}}）。</ref>。他的骨灰安葬在北京东北方的昌瑞山，后来通常称为[[清东陵]]<ref name="Fang 258">{{harvnb|Fang|1943a|p=258}}。</ref>。他的陵墓[[清孝陵|孝陵]]是建在那里的第一座陵墓<ref name="Fang 258"/>。


== 政治遗产 ==
== 政治遗产 ==
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=== -{后}-妃 ===
=== -{后}-妃 ===
尽管[[宗人府]]撰写的爱新觉罗族谱中记载的福临后妃仅有十九位，但埋葬记录显示福临的后妃至少有三十二名<ref>参见{{Harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+last+emperors#PPA141,M1 141]}}表。</ref>。有十一名后妃为福临生育，福临在位时的两任皇后皆为福临母亲昭圣慈寿皇太后的堂亲。1644年大清入主中原后，逐渐以后妃的封号和姓氏称呼她们<ref name="Rawski 129">{{harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=129}}。</ref>。
尽管[[宗人府]]撰写的爱新觉罗族谱中记载的福临后妃仅有十九位，但埋葬记录显示福临的后妃至少有三十二名<ref>参见{{Harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=141}}表。</ref>。有十一名后妃为福临生育，福临在位时的两任皇后皆为福临母亲昭圣慈寿皇太后的堂亲。1644年大清入主中原后，逐渐以后妃的封号和姓氏称呼她们<ref name="Rawski 129">{{harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=129}}。</ref>。


==== 皇-{后}- ====
==== 皇-{后}- ====
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=== 子女 ===
=== 子女 ===
福临的妻妾共为其生育了十四个子女<ref>参见{{harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+last+emperors#PPA142,M1 142]}}表。</ref>，但只有四子（福全、玄烨、常颖、隆禧）一女（和硕恭懿长公主）活到婚龄。和之后的大清皇帝不同，其皇子没有按辈分取名<ref>参见{{Harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+last+emperors#PPA112,M1 112]表}}。</ref>。
福临的妻妾共为其生育了十四个子女<ref>参见{{harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=142}}表。</ref>，但只有四子（福全、玄烨、常颖、隆禧）一女（和硕恭懿长公主）活到婚龄。和之后的大清皇帝不同，其皇子没有按辈分取名<ref>参见{{Harvnb|Rawski|1998|p=112表}}。</ref>。
[[File:Young Kangxi.jpg|alt=Full-face-view color painting of the head and shoulders of a young man wearing a two-tiered red cap with a white edge, a necklace made of red beads except for two larger blue beads each surrounded by two white beads, and wearing a yellow robe covered with dragon-and-clouds patterns in green, blue, and red.|缩略图|右|清世祖福临第三子玄烨在他驾崩后即皇帝位，年号康熙（1662－1722）.]]
[[File:Young Kangxi.jpg|alt=Full-face-view color painting of the head and shoulders of a young man wearing a two-tiered red cap with a white edge, a necklace made of red beads except for two larger blue beads each surrounded by two white beads, and wearing a yellow robe covered with dragon-and-clouds patterns in green, blue, and red.|缩略图|右|清世祖福临第三子玄烨在他驾崩后即皇帝位，年号康熙（1662－1722）.]]


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; 主要研究
; 主要研究
* {{citation|last=Dennerlin|first=Jerry|chapter=The Shun-chih Reign|editor-first=Willard J. |editor-last=Peterson|title=Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800（剑桥中国清朝前中期史）|location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|pages=73–119 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA73 |isbn=0-521-24334-3}}.
* {{citation|last=Dennerlin|first=Jerry|chapter=The Shun-chih Reign|editor-first=Willard J. |editor-last=Peterson|title=Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800（剑桥中国清朝前中期史）|location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|pages=73–119 ||isbn=0-521-24334-3}}.
* {{citation|last=Fang|first=Chao-ying|author-link=房兆楹|chapter=Fu-lin（福临）|pages=255–59|year=1943a|editor-last=Hummel|editor-first=Arthur W. |title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1644–1912)（清朝名人传）|location=Washington|publisher=United States Government Printing Office}}.
* {{citation|last=Fang|first=Chao-ying||chapter=Fu-lin（福临）|pages=255–59|year=1943a|editor-last=Hummel|editor-first=Arthur W. |title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1644–1912)（清朝名人传）|location=Washington|publisher=United States Government Printing Office}}.
* {{citation|last=Struve|first=Lynn|author-link=司徒琳|year=1988|chapter=The Southern Ming（南明）|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA641&lpg=PP3&id=tyhT9SZRLS8C#PPA641,M1|title=Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644（剑桥中国明朝史）|editor-last=Frederic W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, and John King Fairbank (eds.)|pages=641–725|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-24332-7}}.
* {{citation|last=Struve|first=Lynn||year=1988|chapter=The Southern Ming（南明）||title=Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644（剑桥中国明朝史）|editor-last=Frederic W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, and John King Fairbank (eds.)|pages=641–725|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-24332-7}}.
* {{citation|last=Wakeman|first=Frederic|author-link=魏斐德|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China（洪业：清朝开国史）|year=1985|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London|publisher=University of California Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0-520-04804-0}}. In two volumes.
* {{citation|last=Wakeman|first=Frederic||title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China（洪业：清朝开国史）|year=1985|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London|publisher=University of California Press||isbn=0-520-04804-0}}. In two volumes.


; 其他作品
; 其他作品
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* {{citation|last=Chang|first=Michael G.|title=A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring and the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785|year=2007|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|location=Cambridge (Mass.) and London|isbn=978-0-674-02454-0}}.
* {{citation|last=Chang|first=Michael G.|title=A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring and the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785|year=2007|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|location=Cambridge (Mass.) and London|isbn=978-0-674-02454-0}}.
* {{citation|last=Chayet|first=Anne|chapter=Architectural wonderland: an empire of fictions|pages=33–52|title=New Qing Imperial History: The making of Inner Asian empire at Qing Chengde|volume=|year=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|location=London and New York|editor-last=Millward|editor-first=James A., et al. (eds.)|isbn=0-415-32006-2}}.
* {{citation|last=Chayet|first=Anne|chapter=Architectural wonderland: an empire of fictions|pages=33–52|title=New Qing Imperial History: The making of Inner Asian empire at Qing Chengde|volume=|year=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|location=London and New York|editor-last=Millward|editor-first=James A., et al. (eds.)|isbn=0-415-32006-2}}.
* {{citation|last=Crossley|first=Pamela Kyle|author-link=柯娇燕|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=0-520-21566-4}}.
* {{citation|last=Crossley|first=Pamela Kyle||title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=0-520-21566-4}}.
* {{citation|last=Dai|first=Yingcong|title=The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing|year=2009|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle and London|url=http://books.google.com.hk/books?id=DYHfVVAAf_kC|isbn=978-0-295-98952-5}}.
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{{refend}}
{{refend}}


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